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VIDEO EDITOR VIDEO TECHNICIAN 39,00 25,00 280,00 180,00
g g g y The working shift in video postproduction is 8 hours within the working hours from 7 a.m. - 11 p.m. upon agreement. Every additional hour is added on. The lowest pricing unit is 30 min.

Aging preserves sensitivity to smooth stereoscopic surfaces
J. Farley Norman Hideko F. Norman Crystal L. Walton and Elizabeth Y. Wiesemann
Department of Psychology Western Kentucky University Bowling Green, Kentucky, 42101-1030
Running Head: aging and stereoscopic surface perception Send all Correspondence to: J. Farley Norman Department of Psychology 1906 College Heights Blvd. #21030 Western Kentucky University Bowling Green, Kentucky, 42101-1030 telephone : (270) 745-2094 email : Farley.Norman@wku.edu
aging and stereoscopic surface perception 2
Abstract Past research on aging and the perception of stereoscopic shape and depth (e.g., Norman, Dawson, & Butler, 2000) has found that while there is a quantitative effect of age, that the qualitative patterns of performances are essentially identical for younger and older adults. Many extant models of stereopsis are cooperative. The "pulling phenomenon" found by Julesz and Chang (1976) demonstrates the cooperative nature of stereopsis. The purpose of the current experiment was to use the methods of Julesz and Chang to determine whether and to what extent aging affects how well binocular disparity detectors interact within a cooperative network. Twenty observers (ten younger & ten older) viewed ambiguous random-dot stereograms that incorporated varying numbers of bias points with unambiguous disparity (0, 50, 250, 1000, & 2000 bias points). Consistent with the earlier findings of Julesz and Chang, we found that a relatively small percentage of bias points (5.6 percent) was sufficient to "pull" the observers' stereoscopic percepts into an organization that was completely different from that perceived in the unbiased state. For example, if an observer's natural bias was to perceive the ambiguous stereoscopic surfaces (defined by the disparities of 10,000 points) as uncrossed/behind, a sufficient number of unambiguous bias points with crossed disparity (560 on average) could pull the entire surface to the front. There was no significant difference between the younger and older observers in the numbers of bias points that were required to obtain stereoscopic "pulling".
aging and stereoscopic surface perception 3
Aging preserves sensitivity to smooth stereoscopic surfaces We human observers normally look out at the world with our two eyes. Because our eyes view essentially the same 3-dimensional (3-D) scene from two different vantage points, the left and right retinal images are somewhat different. These binocular disparities greatly facilitate our ability to perceive depth and 3-D object shape. The ability to perceive depth and 3-D shape from binocular disparity is called stereopsis (literally meaning "solid vision") and has been intensively studied for the past 167 years (Wheatstone, 1838). It is therefore surprising that relatively little research has focused upon whether or how stereopsis is affected by increasing age. Given that the average human life expectancy is increasing substantially in many parts of the world, it is becoming more and more important to understand how aging affects the perceptual processes by which we obtain and process information about our 3-dimensional environment (e.g., according to the Statistical Abstract of the United States, published by the U. S. Census Bureau, the life expectancy at birth has increased from 70.8 years in 1970 to 77.2 years in 2001). Past research on aging and stereopsis has primarily focused upon either the perception of 3-D surface shape or stereoacuity (i.e., the smallest depth difference that can be reliably detected using binocular vision). The results to date have been mixed. For example, many studies have found that stereoacuity deteriorates with age (Bell, Wolf, & Bernholz, 1972; Brown, Yap, & Fan, 1993; Haegerstrom-Portnoy, Schneck, & Brabyn, 1999; Jani, 1966; Wright & Wormald, 1992). Many other similar studies, however, have concluded that stereoacuity is not affected by age (Greene & Madden, 1987; Hofstetter & Bertsch, 1976; Tiffin, 1952; Yekta, Pickwell, & Jenkins, 1989). The results for the perception of stereoscopic shape have been more consistent. Norman, Dawson, and Butler (2000) and Norman, Crabtree, Herrmann, Thompson, Shular, and Clayton (in press) have both shown that
aging and stereoscopic surface perception 4 aging does lead to significant decreases in observers' ability to perceive the depth and shape of 3-D surfaces. They also found, however, that older observers produce the same qualitative patterns of performance as younger observers. For example, Norman et al. (2000) found that the observers in both age groups perceived more depth with increases in binocular disparity, and the performance of younger and older observers was similarly affected by changes in the spatial frequency of the depicted surfaces. Many of the models proposed to account for stereopsis are cooperative in nature (Blake & Wilson, 1991; Dev, 1975; Hayashi, Maeda, Shimojo, & Tachi, 2004; Marr, 1982; Marr & Poggio, 1976, 1979; Nelson, 1975; Watanabe & Fukushima, 1999). In these models, binocular disparity detectors "cooperate" and influence each other's activity. As a result of this "cooperation", these models possess a sensitivity (or exhibit a preference) for smooth stereoscopic surfaces. Another consequence of cooperativity is the stereoscopic "pulling phenomenon" that was discovered by Julesz and Chang (1976). Julesz and Chang used ambiguous random-dot stereograms as their stimuli (Julesz, 1971; Julesz & Johnson, 1968a, 1968b). These stereograms contain both uncrossed and crossed disparities, and the depicted surface depths are ambiguous in that any given observer can only perceive one depth organization at a time. For example, Figure 1 (also see Figure 6.5-5 of Julesz, 1971, p. 214) portrays a stereoscopic square that can be perceived as either floating in front of the background or as recessed behind the background; when an observer perceives the square as being in front, they cannot perceive it as behind and vice-versa. Many observers exhibit a perceptual bias when viewing ambiguous random-dot stereograms, either a bias to perceive the surfaces as being in front or behind. Julesz and Chang found that one could reverse an observer's natural bias by presenting a small sample of "bias dots" with an unambiguous disparity corresponding to the opposite sign of depth (e.g., an entire stereoscopic surface that would ordinarily be perceived as being located behind a background can be "pulled" to the front when a sufficient number of bias dots with crossed disparity are

aging and stereoscopic surface perception 5 added to the stimulus). It is remarkable that as few as 2 to 4 percent bias dots can pull an entire stereoscopic surface into a completely different perceptual organization. In the stereograms of Julesz and Chang, the central square was defined by the disparities of 1024 texture elements; thus one might need only 20 texture elements with an unambiguous disparity to reverse the perceived depth of an entire surface composed of 1024 elements. Julesz and Chang attributed this stereoscopic pulling to the operation of a cooperative neural network of binocular disparity detectors. The primary purpose of the current experiment was to utilize the methods of Julesz and Chang to psychophysically investigate whether the binocular neural networks of older observers are functionally similar to those of younger observers. Experiment 1 Method Apparatus. The stereograms were created by a dual-processor Apple PowerMacintosh G4 computer (1.42 GHz) and displayed on a 22-inch Mitsubishi Diamond Plus 200 color monitor. The resolution of the monitor was 1280 x 1024 pixels. The rendering of the stereograms was accelerated by a Radeon 9000 graphics accelerator (ATI Technologies, Inc.). Stereoscopic versions of the displays were presented to the observers using CrystalEyes3 LCD-shuttered glasses (StereoGraphics, Inc.). Stimulus displays. The stimuli were essentially identical to the ambiguous random-dot stereograms used by Julesz and Chang (1976), with the exception that the density of texture elements was higher. The background of the stereograms was composed of an array of 40,000 (200 x 200) square texture elements. The central stereoscopic square was defined by the disparities of 10,000 texture elements (100 x 100). Each texture element (4 x 4 pixels) had a 50 percent probability of being colored either red or black. The stereograms were viewed by the observers at a distance of 57.3 cm; the stereograms subtended 24 x 24 degrees visual angle.
aging and stereoscopic surface perception 6 The central square was presented with a disparity of 13.7 minutes arc. Because of how the ambiguous stereograms were constructed (based upon the "wallpaper effect", see Julesz, 1971, section 6.2, pp. 187-198), it is possible to make stereoscopic matches across the left and right eyes' views that correspond to either crossed or uncrossed disparity. Thus, the disparity of the central square in Figure 1 is ambiguous in that the square may either appear to float in front of the background or be recessed behind it. When the ambiguous stereograms are presented briefly (160 ms or less, see Julesz & Chang, 1976; Julesz, 1971, p. 214), most observers have a natural bias to perceive the depth as being either "in front" or "behind" (i.e., some observers will perceive the central square as being in front, while others will perceive the same surface as being behind the background). One can overcome an observer's natural bias by presenting a small sample of dots that have either an unambiguous crossed disparity or an unambiguous uncrossed disparity. If the number of the unambiguous "bias dots" is sufficient, their presence will cause the entire surface to be "pulled" from an observer's naturally preferred state to the opposite sign of depth (i.e., from behind to front, or vice-versa). This "pulling" demonstrates the cooperative nature of stereopsis. Procedure. Each observer participated in two experimental sessions. Each session was composed of 110 trials (11 experimental conditions x 10 trials/condition/session). Thus, at the end of the experiment, each observer had completed a total of 220 trials. There were five conditions in which either 50, 250, 500, 1000, or 2000 bias dots with unambiguous crossed disparity were randomly placed within the central square region of the stereograms. There were an additional five conditions in which the bias dots (50, 250, 500, 1000, or 2000) possessed unambiguous uncrossed disparity. In one condition, no bias dots were included in the stereograms. Each stereogram was only presented for 133 msec to minimize the possibility of significant convergence eye movements (Pobuda & Erkelens, 1993; Rashbass & Westheimer, 1961; Westheimer & Mitchell, 1956; in the experiments of Julesz & Chang, they used presentation times of 160 msec). In between trials, the observers maintained

aging and stereoscopic surface perception 7 steady fixation upon a fixation marker presented in the plane of the computer monitor. After viewing each stereogram, the observer was asked to indicate the location of the central square surface in depth, either "in front" of the background or "behind" the background. The observers were instructed to always report the location in depth of the central square, and to not report the location in depth of any bias dots (if they appeared to have a different location in depth than the central square). Observers. Twenty observers participated in the experiment. All observers, both younger and older, possessed good stereopsis, and were able to spontaneously perceive the depth and shape of objects presented within random-dot stereograms. One group of observers consisted of ten older adults (mean age was 70.9 years, SD = 4.1; the range of their ages was 66 to 80 years). These observers were asked (i.e., self report) whether they possessed eye or retinal problems, such as macular degeneration, glaucoma, or cataracts (none were reported). The other group consisted of ten younger observers (mean age was 23.4 years, SD = 3.7). The younger observers' average acuity was 1.0 min-1, while that for the older observers was slightly less, 0.87 min-1 (1.0 min-1 is equivalent to 20/20 vision measured at 20 feet; 0.8 min-1 is equivalent to 20/25 vision). If the observers typically wore corrective lenses (e.g., bifocals), they used the correction that gave the best visual acuity to view the experimental stimuli. All of the observers were nave with regards to the purposes of the experiment, and were unaware of how the experimental stimuli had been generated. Results Eleven of our 20 observers possessed a strong natural bias for perceiving the briefly presented ambiguous central square as "behind". That is, in the condition where no bias dots were included in the stereograms these observers perceived the central square as behind on 75 percent or more of the trials. Three of our observers possessed a similar natural bias to perceive the ambiguous surfaces in front, while the remaining six observers had no strong bias for either in front or behind. This inter-observer

aging and stereoscopic surface perception 8 variability in natural bias is consistent with the results of Julesz and Chang (1976). In their experiment, two of the observers (BJ & JJC) possessed a strong "behind" bias, while observer RAP exhibited a similar bias for "front". A sample of representative results for six individual younger and older observers is shown in Figure 2. In this figure two observers (observers 2 and 15) did not exhibit a strong natural bias in the no bias dots condition, but it was possible to consistently "pull" the central square behind as long as a sufficient number of bias dots were present in the stereograms. Likewise, observers 4, 10, 12, and 20 exhibited a strong natural bias for behind (see their responses for the no bias dot condition), but it was possible to completely reverse their natural bias and "pull" the central stereoscopic surface to the front. For each observer, we fit a logarithmic function to their responses (these fits can be seen in Figure 2), and we then used the 75th percentage point on this function to estimate the threshold number of bias dots needed to obtain reliable stereoscopic "pulling". On average, the observers needed 558.5 bias dots (thus representing 5.585 percent of the texture elements located within the central stereoscopic square) to obtain reliable "pulling". These results are consistent with those of Julesz and Chang (1976), and Julesz (1971, p. 214), who stated that "this natural bias can be overcome by a slight physical bias of 3-10% depending on the subject". In our experiment we did not find any significant effect of age upon the number of bias dots needed to obtain stereoscopic "pulling" (t(18) = -0.78, p =.45, 2-tailed). The younger observers needed an average bias of 4.6 percent, while the older observers needed an average bias of 6.6 percent. It is important to note that the magnitude of both of these biases (i.e., for the younger and older observers) both fall within the "normal" range of performance (3-10%) indicated by Julesz (1971, p. 214). We performed a power analysis upon the observers' results, and it revealed that we would need a sample of 346 observers (173 younger observers and 173 older observers) to have a 90 percent chance of statistically detecting the magnitude of difference that was observed in the current experiment.
aging and stereoscopic surface perception 9 Discussion In their article, Julesz and Chang (1976, p. 119) stated that "the pulling effect is a sensitive way to study the cooperativity of global stereopsis". In the current experiment, we used their technique to investigate how much functionality remains within the stereoscopic visual system of older observers. The results of our experiment strongly suggest that older observers retain most of their stereoscopic functionality. They still possess (at least up to the age of 80, the oldest observer who participated in our experiment) a functional cooperative neural network in which effective interactions between binocular disparity detectors still occur. Our results confirm the findings of Julesz and Chang (who primarily used experienced observers: two of the four observers were Bela Julesz and Jih-Jie Chang; in the current experiment, we used 20 nave observers) and extend their findings by demonstrating that older observers' stereoscopic neural networks are functionally similar to those of much younger observers (a 47.5 year difference in average age in our experiment). The functional similarity between older and younger observers' stereoscopic vision that was found in the current experiment is similar to the earlier findings of Norman et al. (2000) and Norman et al. (in press). In those investigations, it was found that 1) older observers perceive depth magnitudes in a manner that is similar to that of younger observers, 2) older observers discriminate 3-D surface shape in a manner that is similar to that of younger observers, 3) older observers are affected by reductions in binocular correspondence in a manner that is similar to that of younger observers, and 4) that older observers can perceive depth and 3-D surface shape from dynamic random-dot stereograms in a manner that is similar to that of younger observers. Both of these earlier investigations found quantitative effects of age, but the qualitative patterns of performance were essentially identical for both the younger and older observers. The findings of the current experiment suggest a probably reason for these earlier documented psychophysical similarities -- these similarities in performance between

aging and stereoscopic surface perception 10 younger and older observers occur because older observers still possess a functionally effective cooperative stereoscopic neural network. This similarity between younger and older observers in terms of stereoscopic vision does not necessarily extend to the perception of 3-D shape from motion (see Andersen & Atchley, 1995; Norman et al., 2000; Norman, Clayton, Shular, & Thompson, 2004). The results of Norman et al. (2000) and Norman et al. (2004) showed that older observers cannot reliably discriminate 3-D shape from motion when the surface points only survive for two successive views in a longer apparent motion sequence. Under these conditions, the older observers' shape discrimination performance falls to chance levels (see Figure 10 of Norman et al., 2000 and Figures 1 & 3 of Norman et al., 2004). Apparently aging does lead to significant deteriorations in the ability to perceive 3-D shape from motion, especially when the temporal correspondences of the moving surface elements are disrupted. In comparison, stereopsis appears to be relatively unaffected by age and remains effective and functional throughout the later stages of life.
aging and stereoscopic surface perception 11 References Andersen, G. J., & Atchley, P. (1995). Age-related differences in the detection of three-dimensional surfaces from optic flow. Psychology & Aging, 10, 650-658. Bell, B., Wolf, E., & Bernholz, B. A. (1972). Depth perception as a function of age. Aging and Human Development, 3, 77-81. Blake, R., & Wilson, H. R. (1991). Neural models of stereoscopic vision. Trends in Neurosciences, 14, 445-452. Brown, B., Yap, M. K. H., & Fan, W. C. S. (1993). Decrease in stereoacuity in the seventh decade of life. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics, 13, 138-142. Dev, P. (1975). Perception of depth surfaces in random-dot stereograms: A neural model. International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 7, 511-528. Greene, H. A., & Madden, D. J. (1987). Adult age differences in visual acuity, stereopsis, and contrast sensitivity. American Journal of Optometry & Physiological Optics, 64, 749-753. Haegerstrom-Portnoy, G., Schneck, M. E., & Brabyn, J. A. (1999). Seeing into old age: vision function beyond acuity. Optometry and Vision Science, 76, 141-158. Hayashi, R., Maeda, T., Shimojo, S., & Tachi, S. (2004). An integrative model of binocular vision: A stereo model utilizing interocularly unpaired points produces both depth and binocular rivalry. Vision Research, 44, 23672380. Hofstetter, H. W. & Bertsch, J. D. (1976). Does stereopsis change with age? American Journal of Optometry & Physiological Optics, 53, 664-667. Jani, S. N. (1966). The age factor in stereopsis screening. American Journal of Optometry and Archives of the American Academy of Optometry, 43, 653-657. Julesz, B. (1971). Foundations of cyclopean perception. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

aging and stereoscopic surface perception 12 Julesz, B., & Johnson, S. C. (1968a). "Mental holography": stereograms portraying ambiguously perceivable surfaces. Bell System Technical Journal, 47, 2075-2093. Julesz, B., & Johnson, S. C. (1968b). Stereograms portraying ambiguously perceivable surfaces. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 61, 437-441. Julesz, B., & Chang, J. (1976). Interaction between pools of binocular disparity detectors tuned to different disparities. Biological Cybernetics, 22, 107-119. Marr, D. (1982). Vision: a computational investigation into the human representation and processing of visual information. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. Marr, D., & Poggio, T. (1976). Cooperative computation of stereo disparity. Science, 194, 283-287. Marr, D., & Poggio, T. (1979). A computational theory of human stereo vision. Proceedings of the royal society of London B, 204, 301-328. Nelson, J. I. (1975). Globality and stereoscopic fusion in binocular vision. Journal of theoretical biology, 49, 1-88. Norman, J. F., Dawson, T. E., & Butler, A. K. (2000). The effects of age upon the perception of depth and 3-D shape from differential motion and binocular disparity. Perception, 29, 1335-1359. Norman, J. F., Clayton, A. M., Shular, C. F., & Thompson, S. R. (2004). Aging and the perception of depth and 3-D shape from motion parallax. Psychology and Aging, 19, 506514. Norman, J. F., Crabtree, C. E., Herrmann, M., Thompson, S. R., Shular, C. F., & Clayton, A. M. (in press). Aging and the perception of 3-dimensional shape from dynamic patterns of binocular disparity. Perception & Psychophysics. Pobuda, M., & Erkelens, C. J. (1993). The relationship between absolute disparity and ocular vergence. Biological Cybernetics, 68, 221-228.
aging and stereoscopic surface perception 13 Rashbass, C., & Westheimer, G. (1961). Disjunctive eye movements. Journal of Physiology, 159, 339-360. Tiffin, J. (1952). Industrial psychology. New York: Prentice-Hall. Watanabe, O., & Fukushima, K. (1999). Stereo algorithm that extracts a depth cue from interocularly unpaired points. Neural networks, 12, 569578. Westheimer, G., & Mitchell, A. M. (1956). Eye movement responses to convergence stimuli. A. M. A. Archives of Ophthalmology, 55, 848-856. Wheatstone, C. (1838). Contributions to the physiology of vision -- Part the first. On some remarkable, and hitherto unobserved, phenomena of binocular vision. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 128, 371-394. Wright, L. A., & Wormald, R. P. L. (1992). Stereopsis and ageing. Eye, 6, 473476. Yekta, A. A., Pickwell, L. D., & Jenkins, T. C. A. (1989). Binocular vision, age and symptoms. Ophthalmology and Physiological Optics, 9, 115-120.

aging and stereoscopic surface perception 14 Figure captions Figure 1 - An example of an ambiguous random-dot stereogram similar to those used in the Experiment. This stereogram contains no bias dots, and it is thus possible to perceive the central square either floating in front of the background or recessed behind the background. This stereogram can be viewed using either crossed or divergent free-fusion. Figure 2 - Representative results for six individual observers (3 younger observers and 3 older observers) illustrating the "pulling effect". The bestfitting logarithmic functions are shown along with the observers' data.

Figure 1

observer 2, age = 21 Percent Judged Behind Percent Judged Front 100.0 75.0 50.0 25.0 0.bias dots 100.0 75.0 50.0 25.0 0.0 0
observer 4, age = 28 Percent Judged Front 100.0 75.0 50.0 25.0 0.0 0

observer 10, age = 22

bias dots
observer 15, age = 67 Percent Judged Behind Percent Judged Front 100.0 75.0 50.0 25.0 0.bias dots 100.0 75.0 50.0 25.0 0.0 0
observer 20, age = 66 Percent Judged Front 100.0 75.0 50.0 25.0 0.0

observer 12, age = 69

Figure 2