Fossil fuel heating equipment
principles and troubleshooting techniques

Application Note

This application note was written to provide you with an understanding of the basic principles of fossil fuel heating systems and how to troubleshoot these systems using thermometers, digital multimeters (DMMs), clamp meters, pressure/ vacuum modules and other accessories. Heat pumps and forced air electric heat furnaces are discussed in other application notes available from Fluke.
Heating systems principles
Forced-air heat is generated at a central furnace and is then distributed and delivered to the conditioned space via a duct system. A properly designed heating system will generate quiet, filtered, and comfortable air into the conditioned zone. Modern systems have been recently designed that will also filter the air electronically, modulate airflow as zone temperatures change, and bring in fresh outside air based on occupied time. There are three types of fossil fuel heating systems predominantly available on the market today. These include natural gas, liquefied petroleum (LP) and fuel oil forced-air furnaces.
DMM with microamps capability testing the flame rectification circuit.
Fossil fuel forced-air heating
Forced-air fossil fuel furnaces are factory manufactured, packaged heating units that include: A combustion chamber designed for gas or oil
while newer high efficiency furnaces are 78 % to 85 % efficient when used with induced draft fans. Modern condensing and, furnaces, however, are 90-95 % A controller section. efficient. Newer units often include a Modern fossil fuel furnaces also secondary heat exchanger to come equipped with electronic increase efficiency and an auxilcontrols for ignition, fan speed iary fan for combustion gases. control, electronic thermostats, Since the newer units substanand safety controls. The typical tially cool the combustion gases, operating pressure of the natural removing water vapor from the gas furnaces at the burner is combustion gases, they often are 3.5 inches of water column. called condensing high-efficiency Natural gas is predominantly furnaces. Additionally, they used as the preferred fuel in will have plastic flue gas piping larger cities and communities instead of older more traditional where main gas lines are metal flue pipe since the gas available. Fuel oil and Liquid temperatures are much lower Petroleum (LP) heating furnaces than less efficient older units. are more popular in rural Older standard gas furnaces communities. were 65 % to 78 % efficient, A heat exchanger A flue gas exhaust chamber A forced air circulating fan
F ro m t h e F l u k e D i g i t a l L i b r a r y @ w w w. f l u k e. c o m / l i b r a r y

Oil heat

THERMOMETER

Check list

Air temperature difference

K TYPE

Primary line voltage Secondary voltage Thermostat volts Oil pump volts
DMM DMM DMM DMM DMM/ IR thermometer Clamp meter DMM/ clamp meter Digital thermometer DMM/ clamp meter Carbon monoxide meter Pressure Transducer
Check the temperature difference across the furnace. (Similar to the gas furnace TD check.)

Flue gas

CANCEL

MIN MAX

T1 T2 T1-T2

Heated air

Cad cell test Carbon monoxide
Use a carbon monoxide meter to check for CO leaks around the heat exchanger, flue and other points within a building. Combustion pump & blower Ignition Step up transformer Combustion chamber Resistance is inversely proportional to light intensity. Bright light equals ohms. Dark equals 100,000 ohms. Resistance must remain below 1600 ohms during burner operation, 200 - 800 ohms is typical.

Fuses Fan amps Fan run capacitor Air temperature difference Flame detection CO level Pressure differential

Primary voltage

Oil tank (above ground)

Cold air

Fan amps

Oil filter

Net BTUs = gross BTUs x efficiency rating
Figure 1. Key measurement points on an oil system.
Fuel oil (diesel) furnaces are similar to gas furnaces except that the fuel must be pumped and atomized within the furnace combustion chamber, since it is provided to the customer in the liquid state. Plus, the atomized oil must be ignited with high voltage electrodes. The components within LP heating furnaces are almost identical to traditional natural gas furnaces, except the operating pressure of the gas at the burner is typically 9 to 11 inches of water column. The temperature of the zone is determined by controlling the combustion process as needed in order to transition heat into the conditioned space. This often requires a pre-purge, purge, ignition sequence, flame proof and verification, combustion cycle, and post-purge upon completion.
Testing the thermostat control system
The thermostat control system on any furnace follows a basic design. It is comprised of two wires; a red wire for 24 volt ac power, and a white wire for the main heat control signal back to the furnace. When cooling is controlled from the same thermostat, then a green wire for fan control and a yellow wire for condensing unit control will also be present. Heating and cooling switching is based on temperature changes. Independent fan operation between heating or cooling cycles is controlled by a manual switch. Some equipment has more than one stage of heating or cooling. In these cases, there will be a W1 output for first stage heat, a W2 output for second stage heat, a Y1 output for first stage cooling, a Y2 output for second stage cooling. Second stage outputs may alternately be controlled by electronic timers rather than a temperature sensitive switch. When troubleshooting the thermostat, it is important to first verify that 24 volt ac power is available at the transformer secondary and at the thermostat.
Troubleshooting fossil fuel forced-air heating furnaces
When troubleshooting the fossil fuel forced-air furnace, it is important to break the unit down into three basic components: The thermostat control system The ignition control sequence The fan control system
Checking current with a clamp meter.
Fluke Corporation Fossil fuel heating equipment-principles and troubleshooting techniques
Once this is verified, then you should use a digital multimeter (DMM) or an HVAC clamp meter to check for voltage at the white wire coming from the thermostat. If power is available at the transformer, but not at the outlet of the thermostat, then the problem is with the thermostat. If the power signal is available at the white wire at the outlet of the thermostat, but is not powering up the heating primary control, check for an open safety switch or loose connection at the primary control. The primary control may be a gas valve on a standing pilot furnace, an ignition control on a hot surface or spark ignition gas furnace, a sequencer on an electric furnace, or an oil burner primary control.

Testing the fan control system
Like the thermostat, the fan control system, which automatically turns on the fan, is simple and straightforward. Traditional furnace fan controls used a temperature reactant bimetal probe in the plenum to control a fan switch. These controls had a Fan-ON and a Fan-OFF temperature setting. Some even had a self contained heater to act as a Fan-ON timer by adding heat to the bimetal probe. This heater paralleled the burner control signal to start the timing. Most modern furnaces have migrated to electronic fan timers that start and stop the fan at pre-set or adjustable timings after the combustion process has begun or ended. Both methods of fan control rely on establishing and maintaining the combustion process before they will start the fan. To troubleshoot the fan plenum control system, first verify that the plenum combustion chamber is getting hot. If it is not hot, check the main gas valve and combustion controls. If it is hot and the fan is not
running, check the condition of the fan motor. It is possible it has failed due to seized bearings. While the power is off, check to see if the fan spins easily. Check the combustion fan control to make sure it isnt stuck open and preventing the fan from running. This can be done with a DMM or multifunction clamp meter. The combustion fan is called a Combustion Air Blower on a 90 percent (Category IV) furnace and is called a Combustion Air Inducer on an 80 percent (Category I) furnace. All furnaces that use a combustion fan must establish that a minimum air volume exists before an ignition sequence is allowed. This is normally accomplished with a pressure differential switch. Use a volt meter to determine if the pressure switch is closing after the combustion fan reaches full speed. If the switch does not close, use a pressure transducer to measure the pressure differential. If the pressure differential is greater than the listed make pressure, then the switch is faulty. If the pressure differential is less than the Make pressure, then there is a problem within the furnace or in the vent system. If the circulating fan is running and you want to determine if it is set at the proper speed, then you need to check the temperature difference across the combustion heat exchanger. This requires measuring the return air temperature and the discharge air temperature. These temperatures can be checked by using a digital recording thermometer to log the temperatures. The normal temperature difference is about 40 F to 70 F. Note, this will vary depending upon the equipment manufacturers design of the heat exchanger surface, so be sure to look at the manufacturers specifications within the unit for acceptable temperature difference variations.

Testing voltage with a multi-function clamp meter.
Testing the flame verification control system
Checking the flame verification control system is required as part of the troubleshooting process when a flame will not stay lit on a gas or oil furnace. Fuel oil heating furnaces use several types of flame verification systems. Older gas furnaces use a thermocouple with a millivolt signal to verify flame presence. Newer, more efficient gas systems utilize various electronic flame verification systems. Oil furnaces use a cad cell with a resistance output to the controllers. Some manufacturers have also tried using a temperature actuated switch mechanism. This article will only address the most popular flame verification systems including the thermocouple, flame rod system, and cad cell system.
To test the unloaded condition of the thermocouple you Gas Burner Controller simply measure the output Flame Rod signal of the thermocouple with a DMM or clamp meter. This is accomplished by unscrewing the thermocouple from the gas valve Furnace Burner and attaching the leads from your DMM or clamp meter to the posiSpade Clip gripped tive and negative polarities of the by AC70 Alligator thermocouple. Normal unloaded Clips on TL75 Test Leads output signals of the thermocouple when heat is applied to the tip is 20 millivolts to 30 millivolts. The thermocouple should be tested under load. For this test, a thermocouple adapter Figure 2. With this setup, either an HVAC DMM or an HVAC clamp meter can be used. must be placed in series between the gas valve and the thermo2. Break the spade connection couple. This allows the loaded and place the test leads from millivolts to be tested. A good a DMM or clamp meter that thermocouple in a good flame measures microamps in series location should be at least 8-12 into the circuit. Having alligamillivolts. The drop out point of tor clips for the test leads the safety solenoid in the gas will make the connection valve is usually about 4 millivolts. much easier. Testing the flame rod. 3. Turn on the meter and set it (See Figures 2 and 3.) Most of in the dc microamp (A) mode. todays light commercial and Restore power to the furnace residential gas burner controls (follow furnace manufacturers utilize a flame rod to confirm the instructions for safe operation) presence of the flame. Heres and set the furnace to call how it works: The ignition for heat. control sends out a voltage to 4. Once the burner or pilot the flame rod. The flame itself ignites, check your meter serves as a partial diode rectireading. Refer to the furnace fier between the flame rod and troubleshooting instructions the ground. Without a flame, to determine how to proceed the circuit is open and there is with this result. Typically, a no current. However, the preslow or zero microamp reading ence of a flame will allow a few may indicate several potential microamps of dc current to flow. problems including: The acceptable microamp read a. he flame sensor is not T ing varies from one manufacturer close enough to the flame. to another. Expected microamp b. arbon build-up on the C values vary widely between rod is limiting current flow controls. The drop out microamps (clean flame rod with may be as low as 0.16 microsteel wool). amps, or upwards of 18 micro c. he flame rod is shorted T amps and higher. to ground. The test procedure itself d. ontinuity is not present C is simple. between the control module 1. Shut off the furnace and locate and the flame rod (use a the single wire between the DMM or clamp meter with controller and the flame rod. continuity function to check). Typically, the wire is termi e. he control module is bad T nated at the control panel or and needs to be replaced. the flame rod with standard Verify using the equipment spade connectors. manufacturers manual. Checking the 24 V ac supply voltage.

4 Fluke Corporation Fossil fuel heating equipment-principles and troubleshooting techniques

Gas heat

Carbon monoxide
Use a carbon monoxide meter to check for CO leaks around the heat exchanger, flue and other points within a building. Flue gas Heated air Verify proper operation of the flame rectification circuit with a clamp meter or digital multimeter in the A mode. Compare measured value against flame control module specifications. Typical values vary widely and can be as low as 0.16 to 18.0 A or more. If the A reading is below specification, the flame rod may need to be repositioned, cleaned, or replaced. Control module
Loose electrical connections/ overloaded circuits Thermostat verification

Flame rod A test

IR thermometer Thermometer DMM DMM DMM Digital thermometer DMM DMM Clamp meter DMM/ clamp meter DMM/ clamp meter Carbon monoxide meter
Primary voltage Secondary voltage Thermostat volts Air temperature difference Fuses Fan relay volts Fan amps

Control voltage

Use a voltage detector or DMM to test for energized 24 V ac contacts. Use an infrared (IR) thermometer to check for loose connections or overloaded circuits.

Inducer fan

Belts and bearings
Use an infrared thermometer to check belts for alignment and bearings for excessive friction.
561 IR THERMOHVACPr METERo
Check the temperature difference across the heat exchanger with a digital thermometer, with the burner working. Expect a 40-75 F temperature difference (TD). If the TD is low, then the fan is running too fast. If the TD is high, then the fan is running too slow or there is restricted air flow.
Fan run capacitor Flame detection (uA) CO level
Figure 3. Key measurements on a gas system.
To test the cad cell shut off the furnace and locate the two Most of todays light commercial wires which run from the cad and residential oil burner controls cell to the controller. Typically, utilize a cad cell to confirm the the wires are terminated at the presence of the flame. These primary control F F terminals. systems work in the following Connect an ohmmeter to the cad manner: cell leads. After flame is estab1. On a call for heat, the primary lished, the F F terminals must control starts the pump motor be jumpered to maintain ignition. and energizes a high voltage This allows for an unhurried transformer to create an ignireading of the cad cell resistance. tion spark. 1. Start the oil burner. 2. The igniters start the combus- 2. After ignition, jumper the F tion process. The flame light F terminals on the primary serves as the energy source control. which powers the cad cell. 3. Read the resistance across the 3. As light increases, the resiscad cell. tance goes down. As the The resistance must be well resistance goes down, the below the drop-out resistance of controller verifies the flame 1600 ohms. This will typically condition and continues to allow the oil pump to operate. be between 200-800 ohms. If the oil pump fails or oil pres- Dirt or soot on the face of the sure is lost, the cad cell sends cad cell will block light from the burner and cause a higher a much higher resistance to than expected resistance. A the control and the oil pump higher than expected resistance shuts off on a manual reset. will also occur if the cad cell is Without a flame, the circuit misaligned so it cannot properly opens up and there is no oil see the flame. pump pressure delivered to the combustion chamber.

Testing the cad cell.

With the burner off, make sure the cad cell is clean and properly aligned so it can see the flame. Use a drop light to check the cad cell. With the light on, the resistance should drop toward zero. With the light off (and the ambient area dark), the resistance should increase toward 100,000 ohms. Make sure there is a good connection between the cad cell pins and the cad cell socket. If the burner is located in an area of bright ambient light, the cad cell may be getting a false light reading of 800 ohms or less. The oil primary control will not allow the burner to start if light is sensed when the burner should be off. Having alligator clips for the test leads will make the connection much easier. Turn on the DMM and set the meter in the ohms mode. Read the resistance with the cad cell exposed to the light within the mechanical space. If the light is not bright enough, shine your flashlight into the surface of the cad cell. As the light is increased, the resistance goes down toward zero ohms.
Next cover the cad cell with a piece of black electrical tape. The resistance should go up to approximately 100,000 ohms. If the cad cell does not respond to a change in light intensity, it has gone bad and needs to be replaced. If the resistance does vary between zero and 100,000 ohms as light is added or removed, it is probably operating properly, and you need to look for other problems within the furnace control circuit.
Test points on fossil fuel furnaces
I. Low voltage Thermostat, continuity and low amps at heat anticipator (1 to.2) Gas valve 24 volts ac Safeties-limits, air pressure, temperature Flame proof thermocouple mV, flame rod microamps II. High voltage on oil furnaces 120 V ac, 5000 V dc to 12,000 V dc ignition III. Gas supply Natural gas: 7 inches w.c. supply pressure and 3.5 inches w.c. manifold pressure (typical) LP gas: 11 inches w.c. supply pressure and 8-10 inches w.c. manifold pressure (typical) IV. Combustion gases CO2 or O2 are a measure of excess air CO is a measure of the quality of combustion V. Temperature CO2 (or O2) along with vent temperature is a measure of combustion efficiency Standard older furnaces 450 F Mid efficiency furnaces 350 F High efficient furnaces 90 % and up, very cool, uses PVC piping Temperature difference across heat exchanger indication of proper air flow will be between 40 F to 70 F. Note: This will vary depending upon the equipment manufacturers design of the heat exchanger surface.
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2006 Fluke Corporation. All rights reserved. Printed in U.S.A. 6/A-EN-N Rev B

when its too fast to see, and too important not to.
CASE STUDY global warming
Vision Research high-speed digital cameras enable revolutionary research into solving global warming through clean use of fossil fuels
Phantom v7.1 high-speed camera applied to a cold flow gasification experiment at the NETL.
WHEN ITS TOO FAST TO SEE, AND TOO IMPORTANT NOT TO Heres a shocking fact: according to the United States Department of Energy (DOE), the average U.S. household uses several tons of coal each year without ever seeing it! As the most abundant fossil fuel available in the United States, there is more energy available in the coal in this country than in the worlds entire oil reserves. The use of coal and other fossil fuels can be traced back to the era of the cave man; however, it was the Industrial Revolution that brought fossil fuels center stage as the countrys go-to energy source. With the advent of the steam engine, coal was the driving force behind powering the nations transportation sector, namely locomotives and ships. Using coal to produce electricity didnt come into the picture until the 1880s, but its currently burned by power plants to produce more than half of the electricity used in the U.S. Unfortunately, the burning of fossil fuels releases significant amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere. One of the major greenhouse gases contributing to the escalating global warming crisis, CO2 has long been the focus of scientists looking to develop more efficient and advanced technologies to reduce and hopefully eliminate the gas as a byproduct from the use of fossil fuels. Significant strides have been made over the past 20 years and new technologies are now available which can remove up to 90 percent of CO2 and
NETL is constantly seeking ways to improve the energy efficiency and the environmental performance of coal and other fossil fuels.
- Franklin Shaffer Research Engineer at NETL

global warming

CASE STUDY
About NETL The National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), one of DOEs 17 national laboratories, is owned and operated by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). NETL supports DOEs mission to advance the national, economic, and energy security of the United States. NETL implements a broad spectrum of energy and environmental research and development (R&D) programs that will return benefits for generations to come: Enabling domestic coal, natural gas, and oil to economically power our nations homes, industries, businesses, and transportation Protecting our environment and enhancing our energy independence NETL has expertise in coal, natural gas, and oil technologies, contract and project management, analysis of energy systems, and international energy issues. In addition to research conducted onsite, NETLs project portfolio includes R&D conducted through partnerships, cooperative R&D agreements, financial assistance, and contractual arrangements with universities and the private sector. Together, these efforts focus a wealth of scientific and engineering talent on creating commercially viable solutions to national energy and environmental problems.

99 percent of other harmful pollutants that previously would have been released into the air. Revolutionary methods of using coal as an energy source for power plants, including those which dont directly involve burning the fuel to produce heat, are also now being developed and used. One of these methods, known as advanced coal gasification or Integrated Combined Cycle Gasification (IGCC), is a unique process that ultimately turns coal into a clean gas which can be used to produce electricity. Perhaps the greatest advantage offered by IGCC is the possibility to completely remove carbon dioxide and other pollutants without releasing them into the air as byproducts. The basics of coal gasification are well understood and coal gasification has been in use for more than 100 years; however, the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL), part of DOEs national laboratory system, has been taking a closer look at the technology with hopes of further enhancing its reliability and overall performance in advanced IGCC power plants. With the help of Vision Research, a leading manufacturer of advanced high-speed digital imaging systems, NETL is now able to study the high-speed dynamics of coal particles during the gasification process. Particle dynamics are of critical importance because they are one of the primary determinants of the reaction rate and efficiency of the gasification process. Conducting research on the microscopic level and using a Vision Research Phantom v7.1 high-speed digital camera to record the high-speed particle motion, NETL researchers made significant breakthroughs in the research of coal gasification where, for the first time, they were able to record in ultra-slow motion and high-resolution, the fundamental dynamics of coal particle motion during the gasification process. Coal Gasification Coal gasification is a clean and versatile way to generate electricity and other energy products from coal as an alternative to traditional generation methods. Coal, together with oxygen, steam and other chemicals, are reacted at high temperatures and pressure to produce a gaseous mixture, known as syngas, which can be cleaned and used in a gas/steam turbine combined cycle system to either generate power or continue being processed to produce hydrogen, transportation fuels, or chemicals. Advancing year after year, coal gasification is turning coal into a nearly pollutant-free combustible gas that can rival natural gas in terms of environmental performance. NETL is constantly seeking ways to improve the energy efficiency and the environmental performance of coal and other fossil fuels, said Franklin Shaffer, a research engineer at NETL. During the gasification process, coal is pulverized into microscopic particles, typically around 100 microns in diameter. Rather than simply burning the coal to produce heat and electricity, the particles are

Click the following link to view high-speed video clips of random motion and collisions of coal particles in a gasification system, recorded with a Phantom v7.1: www.visionresearch.com/go/NETL
chemically processed in a large gasifier chamber, sometimes more than a meter in diameter and 20 meters high. The microscopic coal particles are reacted with other chemicals to produce a gas commonly referred to as syngas. Syngas is very much like natural gas in the fact that it can easily be cleaned and directly burned by turbines to generate electricity for the power grid. Also, with the skyrocketing prices of petroleum, gasified and liquefied forms of coal are now economical as a replacement for gasoline and other petroleum products. By using gasified and liquefied coal from the U.S., we can greatly reduce our dependence on foreign oil. Improving the Gasification Process Using the Vision Research Phantom v7.1 high-speed digital camera, NETL scientists were able to view, record and (more importantly) measure the precise motion of microscopic coal particles within a gasification chamber. Thanks to an array of specially designed high-magnification optics developed by NETL and the ultra-fast frame rates and impressive resolution of the Phantom v7.1, the NETL research team was able to achieve insights never before available. The study of particle behavior in gasses and liquids is known as particle image velocimetry or PIV. PIV is a common application for high-speed cameras. The Phantom v7.1, used by NETL, boasts an impressive frame rate of 4,800 pictures-per-second (pps) at its maximum resolution of 800 x 600 pixels, and for faster speeds, users can scale down the resolution and achieve a maximum frame rate of 160,000 pps. Of significance, the cameras high sensitivity and 12-bits of gray scale bit-depth provide users with increased flexibility and information, especially in low-light environments and where detail is paramount. NETL researchers develop computer models, such as the MFIX model1, to simulate the motion and chemical reaction of microscopic coal particles during the coal gasification process, said Shaffer. These models are used to design energy conversion processes like IGCC with higher efficiency, minimal pollution and high reliability; however, to improve these computer models, NETL needs to better understand the fundamental dynamics of particle motion within gasifiers. Because this is one of the most challenging environments to record video in, we needed the best high-speed imaging technology available, one with the highest frame rates, resolution, and light sensitivity. The Vision Research v7.1 met those requirements on paper and in practice. Since the completion of this project, Vision Research has introduced the Phantom v7.3 - the next generation of the v7.1. Even more advanced than its sibling, the v7.3 takes speed and sensitivity to the next level. At the same

For more information on the NETLs Multiphase Flow with Interphase Exchanges (MFIX) model, see www.mfix.org
resolution of 800 x 600 pixels, the Phantom v7.3 can record at a frame rate of 6,688 pps, and thanks to a unique turbo mode, users can configure the camera to record at 500,000 pps. Besides offering incredible speed, the v7.3s specially designed CMOS sensor also yields increased sensitivity and detail with 14-bit pixel depth (monochrome). Faster communication with a computer running Vision Researchs Phantom Software is also an added benefit of the v7.3 as the camera boasts Gigabit Ethernet connectivity. With the data captured by the v7.1, our research team can now build even more accurate computer models to help design energy systems with higher efficiency, reliability, and pollution control. The ultimate results from the NETLs research could be the ability to use coal without emitting the greenhouse gases that cause global warming, added Shaffer. Large scale IGCC demonstration projects are already underway around the world, and the U.S. government is considering more large scale IGCC demonstration plants. The clean use of coal through IGCC, other advanced energy technologies like solar energy, and the prudent conservation of energy, are significant steps towards alleviating the problem of global warming and leaving a better world for future generations.

About Vision Research:

Vision Research designs and manufactures high-speed digital imaging systems used in applications including defense, automotive, engineering, science, medical research, industrial manufacturing and packaging, sports and entertainment, and digital cinematography for television and movie production. The Wayne, N.J.-based company prides itself on the sensitivity, high-resolution and image quality produced by its systems, robust software interfaces, and reliability and versatility of its camera family all which continue to stand as benchmarks for the high speed digital imaging industry. Vision Research digital high-speed cameras add a new dimension to the sense of sight, allowing the user to see details of an event when its too fast to see, and too important not to. For additional information regarding Vision Research, please visit www.visionresearch.com.
Phantom v7.1 high-speed digital cameras enable revolutionary research into solving global warming through clean use of fossil fuels.
Vision Research is a business unit of the Materials Analysis Division of AMETEK Inc., a leading global manufacturer of electronic instruments and electromechanical devices.
100 Dey Road Wayne, NJ 07470 USA +1.973.696.4500 phantom@visionresearch.com

www.visionresearch.com

Disclaimer: VRI has not independently verified the accuracy of all claims in this case study and is not responsible for any factual errors.

Rev 2008