http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kriegspiel_(wargame) http://www.modelbenders.com/papers/Papers.html
Games for training and learning While much work has gone into defining taxonomies in simulations, less has been done on games. The definition of games is just as varied and we are at an inflection point in games in training with the rise of Serious Games as a force in learning (see section 5 for definitions). A wide range of games options is now available, from simple board games, through casual gaming, dozens of genres of console and PC games, to massive multiplayer online environments. Games culture also has a military skew; military themes have long been the mainstay of gaming culture and remain a popular driver in that market. Massively successful global titles such as Command and Conquer, Call of Duty, Halo, Battlefield 2, Ghost Recon, Rainbow Six, Counterstrike, Splinter Cell, Metal Gear Solid, Haze, Resistance, Stalker and so on have been the mainstay of the games charts for many years. Flight simulators such as Microsoft Flight Simulator, IL-2 Sturmovik, X-plane and Lock On: Modern Air Combat provide a wide range of flight games, many based on real aircraft and real instrumentation. Naval games such as Aegis, Age of Sail, Battleship, Dangerous Waters, Destroyer Command, Naval Ops, Harpoon and Fleet Command, North Atlantic, include ship simulation and submarine games. Military history is also well covered, from ancient civilisations in Age of Empires, through medieval battles to both World Wars. The options are bewildering and, despite the widespread interest in simulations and games in training and the obvious fit between games and the military, decision making is often held back by a lack of knowledge, research and experience of matching appropriate learning tasks with game techniques. It is claimed that using games brings gains, potentially across the entire MOD structure and in line with Military Ethos, including: encouraging recruitment, motivation, complementing existing teaching strategies and blends of learning, recruit retention, reducing failure rate, teaching higher learning goals, decreasing learning time, lower costs and better preparation for operational performance. In summary, there is an embedded culture of excellence in modeling, simulation and wargaming within the military that has already begun to benefit from advances in video game technologies and methods. Using video game technologies more widely in learning and training within the military feels like a natural extension of this culture. The purpose of this report is to examine this proposition in detail. The following section describes the specific aims and objectives of the report.

4. Aims and Objectives of the report:
The overarching aim of the report is to deliver a comprehensive, evidencebased report to the DCMT that provides navigation through the subject of serious games. The purpose of the report is to enable the DCMT and wider parts of both the Defence Academy and the MOD at large to start to capture, build and then share an evidence base for games technologies and methodologies within education and training. This report should be used to support and guide any future investment decisions into this sector. In summary, it seeks to demystify the sector and the terminology and to provide a practical and researched way forward. Five clearly defined aims were identified at proposal stage: 4.1. Aim 1 Capture and assess existing evidence for games in education and training This aim encompasses a review of literature and other sources such as conference reports (see sections 3,5,7,8 & 9). Research and Case Studies identified throughout the report include meta-studies from outside and within the military and data from the latest industry conferences. Source references are presented throughout the report (as opposed to a single summary document at the end), to provide a continuous linking to the research background and literature review and to support results and conclusions as they occur in the report narrative. Clear conclusions and recommendations are drawn from this research and from formal interviews (see 4.4 below). 4.2. Aim 2 Identify Options in Games The purpose here is to explain the practical range of options available along with their features, benefits and appropriate use cases. This element of the report demystifies the term serious games and provides a focus on the learning benefits of the various technologies that are often grouped under this terminology. Also included is an introduction of the more encompassing and emergent term Immersive Learning Simulation (ILS). This includes: 1. A practical distinction between play, games, virtual worlds and different simulations 2. A taxonomy of ILS.
4.3. Aim 3 Match learning tasks to an ILS taxonomy To aid decision making, areas of learning (illustrated with military training examples) are matched against the ILS/ serious games taxonomy, and used as a device to determine optimal use of games approaches in real projects. Games in learning are not new. What is new is the sheer range of possibilities brought about by the explosion of consumer electronics and the internet. However, like any other method of training delivery, we must decide, through selected criteria, how these delivery channels might be used in optimal ways to meet military training goals. These criteria should include learning outcomes, learners, culture, learning resources, electronic infrastructure, scalability and maintainability of the proposed solution. 4.4. Aim 4 Assess the DCMT learning landscape This stage of the report aims to provide a clear understanding of the types and breadth of activities of the DCMT5, through a series of face to face qualitative interviews with key personnel representing aspects of the DCMT. The interviews, based on the structured questionnaire at Appendix 1 to the report, provided insight into broad demographics, learner traits and skills, educational activities and cultural considerations. The report documents these different educational areas and, by overlaying the games taxonomy, is able to offer an evidence based and clear route to decision making. The evidence gathered through interview is further supplemented by a limited learner survey based on the structured questionnaire at Appendix 2 to the report. 4.5. Aim 5 Recommend optimal projects As the report is to provide evidence to deliver action, the final task is to recommend a specified number of projects or use cases. These may be use cases that have been identified during interviews as starting points within the DCMT or they may be wider training and educational areas within the MOD that have risen to the surface during both the literature review and the formal evidence gathering at DCMT.

Caillois, R (1958) - Man, Play and Games. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2001 edition 9 Sutton-Smith, B (1997) - The Ambiguity of Play. Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press 10 Prensky M (2001). - Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill. 11 Lasch, C (1979) - The Culture of Narcissism. New York, NY and London: WW Norton Company 12 Keen A (2007) - The Cult of the Amateur: How today's Internet is killing our culture: Reed Business information 13 Web 2.0 is a term describing the trend in the use of World Wide Web technology and web design that aims to enhance creativity, information sharing, and, most notably, collaboration among users (Wikipedia).
Wittgenstein (2001)14 used the diversity of games (the German word Spiel has a broad meaning) to show that there is no one thing that is common to all games, as games covers a family of like terms. Take ball games; some like football and tennis, have complex rules, others, such as throwing a ball in the air, have no real rules. Some games are competitive, some are not, some games have a goal, and others do not. For Wittgenstein, games, like language, are a complex network of similarities: games form a family the members of which have family likenesses. Language games became a major feature of Wittgensteins philosophy and now underlie many theories of ethics, aesthetics and other areas of philosophical enquiry. Dempsey et al. (1996)15 attempt to tie this down further and define a game as:
a set of activities involving one or more players. It has goals, constraints, payoffs
and consequences. A game is rule-guided and artificial in some respects. Finally, a game involves some aspect of competition, even if that competition is with oneself.

Computer games

Computer games are delivered on a vast array of devices including computers, consoles, mobile devices and TVs. They cover a range of genres, including action, adventure, fighting beat em up, platform, sports simulations, racing, knowledge games, simulation/modeling/role-playing games, management and strategy games, god games, puzzles, drill-andpractice games, logical games and maths games (Kaptelinin and Cole 200116; Becta 200217). Prensky (2001)18 describes six key elements of computer games: 1. Rules, 2. Conflict/competition/challenge/opposition, 3. Goals and objectives,
Wittgenstein L Philosophical investigations: Third edition Blackwell Publishers Dempsey JV, et al(1996). - Instructional applications of computer games. Paper presented to the American Educational Research Association, 812 April 1996, New York. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 394 500. 16 Kaptelinin V, Cole M (2001). - Individual and collective activities in educational computer game playing. In T Koschmann and R Hall (eds) CSCL2 Carrying forward the conversation. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 303316. 17 Becta (2002)- Computer Games in Education project. At www.becta.org.uk/research/research.cfm?section=1&id=2826, accessed 14 April 2004. 18 Prensky M (2001).- Digital game-based learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Hartman, H. (2002). Scaffolding & Cooperative Learning. Human Learning and Instruction (pp. 23-69). New York: City College of City University of New York.
9. Extensive practice and reinforcement Games are played and replayed, sometimes for weeks and months. Their motivational pull makes it likely that the player will return for more. This is rarely the case in traditional training and education. Learning how to play a game is therefore a lesson in that most basic of principles in learning theory reinforcement. By failing and getting put back to the start, games players not only learn quickly how to overcome failure, they get plenty of chances to reinforce their learning. This is often lacking in education and training, where the learning experience is too frequently a simple short-term memory experience without the reinforced push into long-term memory. Using a range of different challenges and tasks on the same subject matter within games enables us to avoid a major pitfall of standard e-learning, that of assuming transfer of knowledge has been achieved. Standard e-learning often only gets the learner to carry out one task on a piece of knowledge, i.e. a test involving multiple choice questions. However, by reinforcing this learning with other similar level cognitive challenges, it is more likely that learners will be able to retain this knowledge and subsequently transfer this knowledge to different scenarios. 10. Collaboration and group/teamwork It often comes as a surprise to those who see gamers as loners to discover that online communities of gamers are among the largest and most vibrant on the web. Game sites invariably have discussion groups, and gamers engage in rich dialogue about the games, use voice over internet (VOIP) to play with people across the globe, and share related strategies and cheats. From a learning point of view, this is a clear demonstration that communities work when they involve similar people with similar interests and goals. Completion of games, or the game, is the goal and gamers genuinely seek to learn and teach each other to reach these goals. Communities need common goals, this is what stimulates mutual support. Communities of practice in education and training are often sparse and can lack vibrancy, even when moderated. Game communities abhor the idea of e-tutors and moderators, yet have scale and are full of life and activity. As new technologies and methods are adopted there is often a gap between progress on the ground, driven by eager practitioners and early adopters, and empirical research, using relatively slow traditional models. This is the case with ILS, Empirical studies are now beginning to filter into this domain. We will consider these studies and note the requirements for further progressive
work. We will also consider the application of high profile use case studies to view progress in development and application. 8.2. Research Data

Kebritchi, M. (2007). The effects of modern math video games on student math achievement and math course motivation. Unpublished dissertation. College of Education, Department of Educational Technology, Research and Leadership. University of Central Florida. 46 Klawe, M. M. (1998). When Does The Use Of Computer Games And Other Interactive Multimedia Software Help Students Learn Mathematics? Unpublished manuscript. Retrieved July 17, 2007 from http://www.cs.ubc.ca/nest/egems/reports/NCTM.doc 47 Moreno, R. (2002). Who learns best with multiple representations? Cognitive theory implications for individual differences in multimedia learning. Paper presented atWorld Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia, & Telecommunications. Denver, CO. 48 Rosas, R., Nussbaum, M., Cumsille, P., Marianov, V., Correa, M., Flores, P., et al. (2003). Beyond nintendo: design and assessment of educational video games for first and second grade students. Computers & Education, 40(1), 71-24.
Sedighian (1996)49, suggesting that computer maths video games may improve mathematics achievement. Consistent with meta-analysis The results also support findings from two meta-analysis, including: (a) Vogel et al. (2006)50 who concluded that interactive simulations and games were more effective than traditional classroom instruction on learners' cognitive gains based on a review of 32 empirical studies, and (b) Dempsey et al. (1994)51 who concluded that students who played math video games and attended the traditional classroom instruction achieved higher mathematics score than students who only attended traditional classrooms based on 94 empirical studies. 8.4. Video games and business management study
A study by Blunt (2006)52 provides evidence that the use of a management video game can significantly improve the test scores of students in a business management course compared to students using only classroom methods. In the University of Arlington, Virginia, approximately half of the classes studying the Principles of Management course utilised a video game as part of the classroom experience. The study semester lasted for 15 weeks, during which students received classroom based learning and were provided with an associated textbook to examine management theories and the changing requirements of management in a dynamic, global marketplace. As part of the course, students learn business problem solving skills that are assessed by a formal test at the end of the course. For the students in the video game condition, half of their lessons utilised a management video game called Virtual U as a study aid. The students used the video game during the lessons. The course instructor presented themes from the course and then utilised the video game to explore these themes with the students. The students played the game and discussed their progress
Sedighian, K. & Sedighian, A. S. (1996). Can Educational Computer Games Help Educators Learn About the Psychology of Learning Mathematics in Children? 18th Annual Meeting of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Florida, USA 50 Vogel, J. J., Vogel, D. S., Cannon-Bowers, J., Bowers, C.A., Muse, K., & Wright, M. (2006). Computer gaming and interactive simulations for learning: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 34(3), 229-243. 51 Dempsey, J.V., Rasmussen, K., Lucassen, B. (1994). Instructional gaming: implications for instructional technology. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the AECT, 1620 February, Nashville, TN. 52 Richard D. Blunt doctoral work Walden University (2006)

and findings with the class based upon the study themes. In total this comprised between 4 and 8 hours of gameplay during the semester. Virtual U engages the player in the tactical and strategic issues of running a college campus. The player must address major areas such as operating budgets, hiring faculty, and endowment management as well as lesser areas such as campus parking and availability of athletic scholarships. The game is an example of an Episodic Sim (see section 9) where the player makes changes to the gameplay that are then submitted and the consequences are computed by the game.
Image 3: A screenshot from Virtual U. Students in classes using the game scored significantly higher mean test scores than classes that did not.
Figure 3: Chart shows average test scores for student groups in conditions: studied using ILS; studied without ILS. Taken from Blunt (2006). The difference was statistically significant.
Montreal Public Transit System
The e-Learning Guild survey references a valuable case study undertaken by the Public Transit System in Montreal (STM) Canada. Typically, STM job positions require months, and even years, of intensive, critical training to ensure the protection of passengers, employees, and property. In the last few years, the STM has switched its traditional instructor-led training process to a simulation-based training platform powered by uMinds Intelligent Tutoring System. Using this system STM have developed an ILS to train workers on their Safety and Security programme. The training adopts a blended approach: theory and core knowledge is acquired via traditional eLearning and tutor guidance; the students must then apply this knowledge in the context of real world safety and security challenges. One of scenarios will place the learner within a 3D subway tunnel where they can control many aspects of the avatars interactions. In this environment they will experience and practice fire, accident and electrocution scenarios.
Image 4: A screenshot from STMs Safety and Security training programme developed by Umind. STM wanted to embed best practice into scenarios that could be adapted and changed as new corporate learning was generated. They also wanted to ensure that each trainee was exposed to consistent and up to date best practice challenges. Usually, this training involves classroom and then actual training within a real tunnel. However, access to subway tunnels is costly, very slow as only two trainees can attend simultaneously and difficult to arrange as the tunnels are in use. Clearly, it is also very difficult to simulate fires and accidents in subway tunnels regularly. The ILS provided immediate benefits in: cost, speed of roll out, scalability, access to best practice, and the ability to embed new learning goals in a realistic scenario. An Artificial Intelligence (AI)-enhanced virtual tutor consistently analyzes the users performance, assists and guides him throughout his learning path, identifies his skill-gaps, and provides remediation by generating case after case to help him build his knowledge until he reaches a high level of performance. Evaluation ROI studies concluded that training costs dropped from $763 per employee to $300 Simulation-Based Training reduced onsite training time by 50%

Americas Army

Americas Army with over 9 million registered accounts, this is the largest example of the use of games in the military. Released on July 4, 2002, its cost is estimated to be between $6 million and $8 million. Drawing its inspiration from a commercial game, Counter Strike - and developed on the Unreal games engine, this online game has been a huge success as a political, PR and recruitment tool for the US Army (N.B. This is not explicitly a training tool). Americas Army incorporates high levels of realism, including an accurate depiction of the US Armys training regime, complete with classrooms, the use of real firearms and depictions of real combat scenarios. Regular soldiers carry an assault rifle (M16A2, M4, or M4A1), specialist automatic rifleman (M249 SAW), grenadier (M16A2 with M203), sniper (M-24 or M82, plus a Beretta M9 pistol as a sidearm), or team leader (assault rifle and binoculars). Enemies carry weapons such as the AK-47. It has had further developments for use by the intelligence agencies and a test centre for new weapons.
Thanks to Captain Morten Hougen mhougen@mil.no for providing the information for this case study.
Image 6: A screenshot of "America's Army: Special Forces
The game has 4 training maps and another 13 training levels, the game attempts to build in realistic training. The levels allow players to become one of several types of player such as, special forces operator, SDM (squaddesignated marksman), HMMWV driver, CROWS gunner, and Javelin missile operator. Research Evidence for the effectiveness of the game as a recruitment tool is sparse, as the US Army completed its quotas in the two years before and after the games release. However, statements have emerged claiming that the game has been a successful recruitment tool, with large numbers of click throughs to the recruitment website (28%). There has also been speculation about why the game tracks so much user data. It has been suggested that this data has been used to test the competences of potential recruits. Apart from the predictable debate around the militarisation of society through entertainment, there has been criticism of the games lack of combat realism. There is an obvious tension between a game that tries to recruit and the realism of battle.
The game received considerable publicity through the reported case of In Paxton Galvanek in November 2007, who claimed that the games medical training tutorials helped him give first aid to two passengers in a car accident. Academic studies include: "Video Games, Manipulation and the U.S. Military: A Comparative Analysis of America's Army and SOCOM II: US Navy SEALs" academic analysis of America's Army and SOCOM II: U.S. Navy SEALs in terms of "Visual Discourse" by Caroline S. Brooks, a PhD candidate at East Carolina University. "Social Realism in Gaming" academic analysis of America's Army in terms of "Social realism" by Alexander R. Galloway, a book author and Assistant Professor at New York University. "The Potential of America's Army as Civilian-Military Public Sphere" an extensive February 2004 thesis (149 pages) by graduate student Zhan Li for the Massachusetts Institute of Technology - includes ethnographic analysis of soldiers who play the game during the invasion of Iraq, and interviews with West Point directors of the America's Army project (PDF). 8.8. Military Police - Stop and Search

http://www.incidentcommander.net/
http://www.forterrainc.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=8&Itemid=7 Accessed July 1st 2008
worlds. The architecture scales from single user applications up to thousands of concurrent users. Blink 3D72, a platform for creating multi-user Web based virtual worlds and 3D environments. It uses the Induality plugin for web browsers. Second Life73 - A number of companies are developing virtual world applications using development tools within Second Life. There is a 3D modeling tool to create buildings, landscape, vehicles, furniture, and machines. Second Life also includes a scripting language called Linden Scripting Language, or LSL. LSL is used to add autonomous behavior to many of the objects in Second Life, such as doors that open when approached. Strengths Excellent for collaborative and human team building exercises Highly suited to informal learning experiences and virtual meetings High degree of presence Restrictions,74,75 Synchronous training can only take place at a given time and date Replication it is difficult to set up and re-run simulation scenarios Structure virtual worlds often lack embedded learning methods and activities for learners Automated measurement mechanisms are difficult to implement Example Military Use Cases Emergency responder scenarios Crowd control
http://www.pelicancrossing.com/index.htm Accessed 1st July 2008 http://secondlife.com/ Accessed 1st July See Clark Aldrich criticisms of Second Life as a learning tool http://clarkaldrich.blogspot.com/2007/05/top-ten-missing-features-of-second-life.html Accessed June 25th 2008. 75 A similar debate on the strengths and weaknesses of Second Life for learning can be viewed on Stephen Downes blog http://www.downes.ca/cgi-bin/page.cgi?post=45158 Accessed July 5th 2008
Team building / teamwork Conferencing
Examples of Virtual Worlds:
Image 16: Screenshot from a multi player first responder Simulation developed by Forterra using their Olive platform76.
Image 17: Screenshot of a virtual classroom in Second Life
http://www.forterrainc.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=category&sectionid=7&id =13&Itemid=53 Accessed July 1st 2008

Device Based Sims

As the name implies, Device Based Sims provide the player with realistic operating control over various kinds of vehicles. Well known examples of this type include flight simulators and driver simulators. From the review of learning in the Defence Academy, it is apparent that Device Based Sims are the least appropriate form of sim. However, they are included within the taxonomy for completeness and for the recent availability of development tools from Microsoft Enterprise Simulation Platform (ESP), which may reduce the complexity of developing these types of sim and bring them more into the mainstream. A goal of most Device Based Sims is to approximate closely the operational reality of vehicles. Typically, they provide extremely high levels of fidelity in 3D graphics, sound, and movement. The sim can provide instant feedback to the user, for example through terrain physics impacting on the vehicle and also through inbuilt AI that examines performance levels. PC-based simulators of this fidelity show excellent levels of training effectiveness and are used to train people to high levels of proficiency within their particular field. User controls and navigation approximate the real world equivalent, such as the gears and steering of a car or the complex cockpit dashboard of an airplane. Development Tools Microsoft ESP - The initial version of the platform focuses on Microsofts expertise gained through its Flight Simulator franchise in aviation capabilities and is targeted to military and commercial aviation audiences. Future versions will be extended to ground and maritime operations, indoor and avatar-centric simulations for commercial, government and academic learning.

The decisions were sometimes made slowly, sometimes quickly, sometimes very quickly. The advantage to games and simulations is the player gets to view and analyze the consequences of decisions without actual risk to people, resources, capital, or reputation. Practiced routinely, game-based learning can, as this study is used to show, increase learning which leads to increased competitive advantage
This has been further demonstrated in a study by Ufi learndirect. This study focused upon adult learners with learning difficulties that had been unemployed for a minimum of two years. The ILS utilised in this study significantly improved learning outcomes compared to groups using traditional
http://www.rickblunt.com/phd/blunt_richard_dissertation_final.pdf Accessed July 5th 2008
eLearning. Learner self reports and observed error / replay behaviour indicated a key role for safe failure in motivation and performance.
Do you mean its a game where you can try being at work? What a great idea, you can make mistakes and wont be made to feel silly or get the sack! Its great being able to talk to all the different people to find out what they do without feeling that youre being a nuisance and asking stupid questions.
The researchers describe this element as:
Authentic fail safe environment - learners felt very confident in these virtual worlds. They were able to make mistakes in realistic scenarios without the high consequences of the real world.
Image 20: Screenshot of Ready to Work! an ILS developed by Ufi learndirect

Rich Skills Practice

In the last 30 years, research into expert performance has described the application of deliberate practice methods as fundamental to the acquisition of expert skills (Ericsson 2006)90. Within the research literature, deliberate practice has been strongly linked to improved performance across many professional domains, including91,92,93: medicine, interviewing, music, athletics,
Ericsson, 2006, chapter 38. In Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance Cambridge University Press. 91 Ericsson, K. A. (1998). The scientific study of expert levels of performance: General implications for optimal learning and creativity. High Ability Studies, 9, 75-100.
reading, coaching, learning, and weather prediction. This covers a range of skills and competences from spatio-motor and kinetic to cognitive and emotional - from a golfer putting under pressure to doctors interviewing and lawyers negotiating. The importance of practice and experiential learning came through as the second key theme from both the learner survey and interviews at DCMT. 90% of the interviews identified practice, role play or experimentation as key elements of the learning format. All learners identified the ability to practice as the most powerful enhancement to the current learning mix at DCMT. With so much background theory being conveyed at the Defence Academy, it was evident that learning interventions that can enable knowledge application or skills practice would be powerful additions. Using deliberate practice, individuals develop exceptional skills by the structured application of key processes under the supervision and direction of the best coaches and teachers. The conditions and processes within deliberate practice are described by Farmer and Williams (2005)94 as: 1) a highly motivated student (2) with good concentration (3) performs a welldefined task, (4) at an appropriate level of difficultly, (5) receives informative feedback and (6) is given opportunities for repetition to correct errors and polish the skill before moving to the next task. Without the application of technology, the use of deliberate practice methods requires, typically, one-to-one expert mentoring and a high performance environment of measurement, feedback and practice requirements that are costly and difficult to meet consistently and coherently in the real world. The use of ILS affords great potential through the provision of a virtual environment in which the trainee can be motivated, can practice skills repeatedly in a realistic environment, can be optimally challenged and receive immediate feedback and can be mentored via best practice.

http://www.tacticallanguage.com/approach.html accessed July 7th 2008 The Effects of Competition on Achievement Motivation Lam, S-f.; Yim, P-s.; Law, J. S. F.; Cheung, R. W. Y. British Journal of Educational Psychology, v74 n2 p281-296 Jun 2004
vary according to size of reward and even the perception of the reward that could be received (Nieuwenhuis et al 2004)100. Recent experiments provide further insight into human reward and motivation. The level of activation in the brain reward centre is moderated by our competitive instincts. We are highly competitive beings. It seems as though our ability to beat or outscore others is more important to us than the actual score or size of reward we receive. Economists and brain scientists at the University of Bonn (Fliessbach et al 2007)101 tested male subjects in pairs, asking them to perform a simple task and promising payment for success. Each participant also learnt how his partner in the game had performed and how much he would pocket in return. Participants who got more money than their co-players showed much stronger activation in the brain's reward centre than occurred when both players received the same amount. For the subjects who earned less, blood flow to the brains reward centre actually decreased, even though they had performed the task successfully and had been rewarded. Being rewarded and the absolute size of the reward were not so important - the subjects were motivated primarily by gaining a bigger reward that their counterpart. Games and competition Conventional games have challenge and competition hard-wired into their design, from chess, checkers, bridge, noughts and crosses, monopoly or scrabble. Video games are no different; indeed they magnify and extend this element. Whether slaying dragons, escaping pyramids, building communities or solving puzzles the player will be competing: individual against self, against the clock, against artificially intelligent actors, against friends and peers in high scores, against tens or hundreds of other players in a massive multiplayer world. This is part of the success and power of video games. Some researchers argue that competition is the key mechanic behind the success of a video game design (Vorderer et al 2003) 102.
Sander Nieuwenhuisa, Dirk J. Heslenfelda, Niels J. Alting von Geusaua, Rogier B. Marsb, c, Clay B. Holroydd and Nick Yeunge (2004). Activity in human reward-sensitive brain areas is strongly context dependent. NeuroImage Volume 25, Issue 4, 1 May 2005, Pages 1302-Social Comparison Affects Reward-Related Brain Activity in the Human Ventral Striatum. K. Fliessbach, B. Weber, P. Trautner, T. Dohmen, U. Sunde, C. E. Elger, A. Falk. Science, 23.11.P Vorderer, T Hartmann, C Klimmt (2003) Explaining the enjoyment of playing video games: the role of competition. ACM International Conference Proceeding Series; Vol. 38

Image 23: Screen shot of simple computer noughts and crosses game.
Games have conflict/competition/challenge/opposition. That gives us adrenaline - Marc Prensky 2004
Evidence from neuro-imaging supports this claim. Many studies have shown activation of the brain reward centres in response to achievement or economic compensation for gambling or competitive decision making games. A recent study has given us the first look at brain reward behaviour while playing video games. Allan Reiss103 and his colleagues at Stanford University took brain activation readings from subjects while playing a video game. The game required the subjects to acquire territory by clicking on balls that were closer to a wall. The design was very simple in terms of graphical fidelity and level of interactivity; however the subjects had to work out the rules of the game while playing and it proved highly motivating. Male subjects acquired significantly more territory than females but both groups reported significant levels of motivation. After analyzing the imaging data for the entire group, the researchers found that the participants showed activation in the brains mesocorticolimbic centre, the region typically associated with reward and addiction. Male brains, however, showed much greater activation, and the amount of activation was correlated with how much territory they gained motivation and competition in action.
http://med.stanford.edu/profiles/frdActionServlet?choiceId=facProfile&fid=4418
Image 24: Screenshot of the highly successful Nintendo Brain Training game. 20 million units sold across all age ranges. Competing against yourself can be highly motivating. One interesting cultural phenomenon observed during interviews and learner discussions was a fear of game stigma. Many learners felt they could only admit to playing games in private. When 30 students were asked openly in a classroom environment, none admitted to playing computer games. However, when then given the chance to play with a serious game used on one of the courses at Shrivenham, the peer to peer conversations told a very different story with many joking with each other that they were not going to admit to playing Gears of War or Frontliners. This was then followed with a highly competitive multi player serious game experience based on the VBS platform. The hypothesis put forward by one of the interviewees who has seen this phenomenon many times was what he called the Walter Mitty syndrome. In explanation he pointed out that

Induction training and familiarity interactive problem solving
scenarios that enable new inductees to rapidly understand new roles, health and safety and locations. Recommend Branching Story Sim or Exocentric Sim design.

13. Appendices:

13.1. Structured Interview Flow
Defence Academy Serious Games and Virtual Worlds Study Structured Interview Questionnaire Name of Interviewee: Appointment/Post:

Foreword

A recent report by the e-Learning Guild108 has helped to define what is meant by and the usefulness of Immersive Learning Simulations, Serious Games and Virtual Worlds. An Immersive Learning Simulation (ILS), also known as a Serious Game, is an optimized blend of simulation, game element and pedagogy that leads to the student being motivated by, and immersed into, the purpose and goals of a learning interaction. Serious games use meaningful contextualization and optimized experience to integrate the engagement of well-designed games with serious learning goals. A Virtual World is a computer-based simulated environment intended for its users to inhabit and interact via avatars. These avatars are usually two-dimensional or three-dimensional graphical representations. Often many users can interact simultaneously within the worlds across networks.

Permission

I give permission to record my responses. I understand that these recordings will only be used in connection with this study and that the information from this study will be annonomised accordingly. Signed (Interviewee):
Date: Signed (Interviewer):
http://www.elearningguild.com/

Landscape:

1. Please describe the typical/main courses you teach. Include subject domain, course duration, frequency, mix etc.
2. Please describe how many lessons you would teach in a typical day
3. Please describe the most common lesson structure and duration

Delivery:

1. What content type do you usually deliver lecture style (Knowledge, Case Studies, Practical examples, Skills)?

4. What do you think the benefits of such and approach are?
5. What do you think the learner reaction would be to the use of them in the courses

Virtual Worlds

1. What does the term Virtual Worlds mean to you?
2. Where do you think Virtual Worlds could be used in your learning curriculum?
3. Where do you think that Virtual Worlds could not be used in your learning curriculum?

Close:

Thank the interviewee for their time, explain that these interviews, along with the literature review, the pre-interview questionnaires are going to be the evidence base used to develop the full report and we expect to submit the final draft in June. Ask if there are any other comments, questions that they would like to raise.

Comments:

Learner Survey Flow
1. Defence Academy Learner Survey - Technology Section This is a short "Learner Survey" which aims to collect some raw data from learners currently studying at the Defence Academy. It is part of a wider report on the use of new technologies within education and training. The report has a particular focus on understanding the appropriateness of the use of Games, Simulations and Virtual Worlds within the different courses at the Defence Academy. The aim of this short survey is to get a top line view of the learners studying at the Defence Academy. All result are made completely anonymous and only the aggregated data will ever be made public knowledge. The results will only ever be used for the purpose of this survey and will not be shared with any other parties Thank you in advance for spending the 5 minutes or so it will take to complete it. * 1. How often do you use the internet? Every day 2/3 times a week Once a week Once a month Very rarely/never * 2. For those that use the internet, how many hours do you spend a week for each of the outlined activities? Work (include education, training, research) 0 1-4 5-10 11+
Other (include entertainment, personal comms, interest & hobbies etc) 0 * 1-4 5-10 11+
3. How often do you use any social networking sites such as Facebook, Myspace, Bebo, Second life, MSN forums? Very frequently (eg a number of times a day) Often (eg at least once a day) Occasionally (eg at least once a week) Seldom (once a month) Never What? * 4. How often do you play computer/video games? (this includes, PC, console, handheld or arcade games) Every day 2/3 times a week Once a week Once a month Rarely/Never * 5. On a scale of 1 - 5 , where 1 is the least and 5 is the greatest, how technology literate would you say you are compared to the general population? (technology includes all aspects of ICT) 1. Completely Illiterate 2. Below Average Literacy 3. Average Literacy
4. Above average literacy 5. Advanced literacy Page #2 2. Defence Academy Learner Survey - learner profile * 1. How often do you play sport? Every day