Next Basic AI Technique: Scripting
References: Buckland, Chapter 6 CACM, 52(3), Better Scripts, Better Games

IMGD 400X (B 09)

Scripting

Two senses of the word

scripted behavior
having agents follow pre-set actions rather than choosing them dynamically

scripting language

using a dynamic language to make the game easier to modify

The senses are related

a scripting language is good for writing scripted behaviors (among other things)

Scripted Behavior

One way of building AI behavior Whats the other way? Versus simulation-based behavior
e.g., goal/behavior trees genetic algorithms machine learning etc.
Scripted vs. Simulation-Based AI Behavior
Example of scripted AI behavior

fixed trigger regions

when player/enemy enters predefined area send pre-specified waiting units to attach
doesnt truly simulate scouting and preparedness player can easily defeat AI once she figures it out
mass outnumbering force just outside trigger area attack all at once
Non-scripted (simulation-based) version
send out patrols use reconnaissance information to influence unit allocation adapts to players behavior (e.g., massing of forces) can even vary patrol depth depending on stage of the game
Advantages of Scripted AI Behavior

Much faster to execute

apply a simple rule, rather than run a complex simulation
Easier to write, understand and modify
than a sophisticated simulation
Disadvantages of Scripted AI Behavior

Limits player creativity

players will try things that should work (based on their own real-world intuitions) will be disappointed when they dont
Allows degenerate strategies
players will learn the limits of the scripts and exploit them
Games will need many scripts
predicting their interactions can be difficult complex debugging problem

Stage Direction Scripts

Controlling camera movement and bit players
create a guard at castle drawbridge lock camera on guard move guard toward player etc.
Better application of scripted behavior than AI
doesnt limit player creativity as much improves visual experience
Stage direction also be done by sophisticated simulation
e.g., camera system in God of War

Scripting Languages

You can probably name a bunch of them: custom languages tied to specific games/engines
UnrealScript, QuakeC, HaloScript, LSL,.
general purpose languages
Tcl, Python, Perl, Javascript, Ruby, Lua,. the modern trend, especially with Lua
Often (mostly) used to write scripted (AI) behaviors.
Custom Languages and Tools

Designer UI from Halo 3

Custom Scripting Languages
A custom scripting language tied to a specific game, which is just idiosyncratically different (e.g., QuakeC) doesnt have much to recommend it However, a game-specific scripting language that is truly natural for non-programmers can be very effective:
if enemy health < 500 && enemy distance < our bigrange move. fire. else. return

(GalaxyHack)

General Purpose Scripting Languages
What makes a general purpose scripting language different from any other programming language? interpreted (byte code, virtual machine)
faster development cycle safely executable in sandbox
simpler syntax/semantics:
untyped garbage-collected builtin associative data structures
plays well with other languages
e.g., LiveConnect,.NET, Lua stack
But when all is said and done, it looks pretty much like code to me. e.g. Lua
function factorial(n) if n == 0 then return 1 end return n * factorial(n - 1) end
Scripting Languages in Games
So it must be about something else. Namely, the game development process: For the technical staff
data-driven design (scripts viewed as data, not part of codebase) script changes do not require game recompilation

For the non-technical staff
allows parallel development by designers allows end-user extension
A Divide-and-Conquer Strategy
implement part of the game in C++
the time-critical inner loops code you dont change very often requires complete (long) rebuild for each change
and part in a scripting language
dont have to rebuild C++ part when change scripts code you want to evolve quickly (e.g, AI behaviors) code you want to share (with designers, players) code that is not time-critical (can migrate to C++)
But to make this work, you need to successfully address a number of issues: Where to put boundaries (APIs) between scripted and hard-coded parts of game Performance Flexible and powerful debugging tools
even more necessary than with some conventional (e.g., typed) languages
Is it really easy enough to use for designers!?

Lua in Games

Has come to dominate other choices
Powerful and fast Lightweight and simple Portable and free
Currently Lua 5.1 See http://lua.org

per Wikipedia

* Aleph One (an open-source enhancement of Marathon 2: Durandal) supports Lua, and it's been used in a number of scenarios (including Excalibur and Eternal). * Blobby Volley, in which bots are written in Lua. * Company of Heroes, a WW2 RTS. Lua is used for the console, AI, single player scripting, win condition scripting and for storing unit attributes and configuration information. * Crysis, a first-person shooter & spiritual successor to Far Cry. * Dawn of War, uses Lua throughout the game. * Destroy All Humans! and Destroy All Humans! 2 both use Lua. * Escape from Monkey Island is coded in Lua instead of the SCUMM engine of the older titles. The historic "SCUMM Bar" is renovated and renamed to the "Lua Bar" as a reference. * Far Cry, a first-person shooter. Lua is used to script a substantial chunk of the game logic, manage game objects' (Entity system), configure the HUD and store other configuration information. * Garry's Mod and Fortress Forever, mods for Half-Life 2, use Lua scripting for tools and other sorts of things for full customization. * Grim Fandango and Escape from Monkey Island, both based on the GrimE engine, are two of the first games which used Lua for significant purposes.

Lua in Games (contd)

* Gusanos (Version 0.9) supports Lua Scripting for making the whole game modable. * Homeworld 2 uses Lua scripting for in-game levels, AI, and as a Rules Engine for game logic. * Incredible Hulk: Ultimate Destruction uses Lua for all mission scripting * JKALua, A game modification for the game JK3: Jedi Academy. * Multi Theft Auto, a multi-player modification for the Grand Theft Auto video game series. The recent adaptation for the game Grand Theft Auto San Andreas uses Lua. * Painkiller * Ragnarok Online recently had a Lua implementation, allowing players to fully customize the artificial intelligence of their homunculus to their liking, provided that they have an Alchemist to summon one. * ROBLOX is an online Lego-like building game that uses Lua for all in-game scripting. * SimCity 4 uses Lua for some in-game scripts. * Singles: Flirt Up Your Life uses Lua for in-game scripts and object/character behavior. * Spring (computer game) is an advanced open-source RTS engine, which is able to use Lua for many things, including unit/mission scripting, AI writing as well as interface changes. * S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadow of Chernobyl * Star Wars: Battlefront and Star Wars: Battlefront 2 both use Lua.

* Star Wars: Empire at War uses Lua. * Supreme Commander allows you to edit almost all its aspects with Lua. * Toribash, a turn-based fighting game, supports Lua scripting. * Vendetta Online, a science fiction MMORPG, lets users use Lua to customize the user interface, as well as create new commands and react to events triggered by the game. * Warhammer Online uses Lua. * The Witcher. * World of Warcraft, a fantasy MMORPG. Lua is used to allow users to customize its user interface. * Xmoto, a free and open source 2D motocross platform game, supports Lua scripting in levels.

Lua Language Data Types

Nil singleton default value, nil Number internally double (no ints!) String array of 8-bit characters Boolean true, false
Note: everything except nil coerced to false!, e.g., , 0
Function unnamed objects Table key/value mapping (any mix of types) UserData opaque wrapper for other languages Thread multi-threaded programming (reentrant code)
Lua Variables and Assignment
Untyped: any variable can hold any type of value at any time

A = 3; A = hello;

Multiple values
in assignment statements A, B, C = 1, 2, 3; multiple return values from functions A, B, C = foo();
Promiscuous Syntax and Semantics
Optional semi-colons and parens
A = 10; B = 20; A = 10 B = 20 A = foo(); A = foo
Ignores too few or too many values
A, B, C, D = 1, 2, 3 A, B, C = 1, 2, 3, 4
Can lead to a debugging nightmare! Moral: Only use for small procedures

Lua Operators

arithmetic: + - * / ^ relational: < > <= >= == ~= logical: and or not concatenation:. with usual precedence

Lua Tables

heterogeneous associative mappings used a lot standard array-ish syntax
except any object (not just int) can be index (key)
mytable[17] = hello; mytable[chuck] = false;
curly-bracket constructor
mytable = { 17 = hello, chuck = false };
default integer index constructor (starts at 1)
test_table = { 12, goodbye, true }; test_table = { 1 = 12, 2 = goodbye, 3 = true };

Lua Control Structures

Standard if-then-else, while, repeat and for
with break in looping constructs
Special for-in iterator for tables
data = { a=1, b=2, c=3 }; for k,v in data do print(k,v) end;

produces, e.g.,

a 1 c 3 b 2

(order undefined)

Lua Functions
standard parameter and return value syntax
function (a, b) return a+b end
inherently unnamed, but can assign to variables
foo = function (a, b) return a+b; end foo(3, 5) 8

convenience syntax

function foo (a, b) return a+b; end

Lua Features not Covered

object-oriented style (alternative dot/colon syntax) local variables (default global) libraries (sorting, matching, etc.) namespace management (using tables) multi-threading (thread type) compilation (bytecode, virtual machine) features primarily used for language extension
metatables and metamethods fallbacks
See http://www.lua.org/manual/5.1

Connecting Lua and C++

Accessing Lua from C++ Accessing C++ from Lua See more details and examples in Buckland, Ch 6.

Lua virtual stack

bidirectional API/buffer between two environments preserves garbage collection safety

data wrappers

UserData Lua wrapper for C data luabind::object C wrapper for Lua data

Lua Virtual Stack

both C and Lua envts can put items on and take items off stack push/pop or direct indexing positive or negative indices current top index (usually 0)

lua-settop 0

Accessing Lua from C
Accessing Lua Global Variables from C
C tells Lua to push global value onto stack lua_getglobal(pLua, foo); C retrieves value from stack using appropriate function for expected type string s = lua_tostring(pLua, 1); or can check for type if ( lua_isnumber(pLua, 1) ) { int n = (int) lua_tonumber(pLua, 1) }. C clears value from stack lua_pop(pLua, 1);
Accessing Lua Tables from C (w. LuaBind)
C asks Lua for global values table luabind::object global_table = globals(pLua); C accesses global table using overloaded [ ] syntax luabind::object tab = global_table[mytable]; C accesses any table using overloaded [ ] syntax and casting int val = luabind::object_cast<int>(tab[key]); tab[17] = shazzam;
Calling Lua Functions from C (w. LuaBind)
C asks Lua for global values table luabind::object global_table = globals(pLua); C accesses global table using overloaded [ ] syntax luabind::object func = global_table[myfunc]; C calls function using overloaded ( ) syntax int val = luabind::object_cast<int>(func(2, hello));

Accessing C from Lua

Calling C Function from Lua (w. LuaBind)
C exposes function to Lua void MyFunc (int a, int b) {. } module(pLua) [ def(MyFunc, &MyFunc) ]; Lua calls function normally in scripts MyFunc(3, 4);
Using C Classes in Lua (w. LuaBind)
C exposes class to Lua class Animal {. public: Animal (string., int.). { } int NumLegs () {. } }
module (pLua) [ class <Animal>(Animal).def(constructor<string, int>()).def(NumLegs, &Animal::NumLegs) ]; Lua calls constructor and methods cat = Animal(meow, 4); print(cat:NumLegs())

JavaScript

Technically called ECMAScript, according to the ECMA-262 standard General purpose scripting language
very similar syntax/semantics to Lua originally developed to run in web browsers included in standard Java JRE since Java 6 very easy connection to Java via LiveConnect
See details in OReilly, JavaScriptThe Definitive Guide
Accessing JavaScript from Java
javax.script.ScriptEngine.eval(String)
give it any JavaScript expression or statement
global variable table lookup function application etc.
evaluates expression in current (persistent) state of ScriptEngine instance
primitive data types automatically coerced wrapper classes for other data
Accessing Java from JavaScript
All Java packages (and thus the classes and their methods) are directly accessible via Packages object
e.g., Packages.java.awt.Toolkit.getDefaultToolkit().beep()

Future Directions

White et al., Better Scripts, Better Games, CACM, 52(3), March 2009.
Its dangerous to put general purpose scripting languages into the hands of non-technical staff
destructive access to game state performance degradation (e.g., infinite loops) buggy synchronization (no transaction support)
Solution: Design restricted, but generic languages that embody design patterns appropriate for games

Game Scripting Patterns

Restricted Iteration Pattern
remove general iteration, goto and recursion allow only for each iterations

Concurrency Patterns

e.g., inventory management instead of lock-based synchronization

State-Effect Pattern

main game loop has effects and update phases partition game object attributes into effect and state attributes (each only used in one phase)