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A Multilevel Approach to the Study of Motor Control and Learning

Second Edition

Debra J. Rose
California State University, Fullerton

Robert W. Christina

University of North Carolina, Greensboro
San Francisco Boston New York Cape Town Hong Kong London Madrid Mexico City Montreal Munich Paris Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto
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Publisher: Daryl Fox Senior Acquisitions Editor: Deirdre Espinoza Development Manager: Claire Alexander Assistant Editors: Christina Pierson and Alison Rodal Production Supervisor: Beth Masse Manufacturing Buyer: Stacey Weinberger Senior Marketing Manager: Sandra Lindelof Production and Composition: The Left Coast Group Cover Designer: Yvo Riezebos Design Photo Researcher: Diane Austin Copyeditor: Carla Breidenbach Cover photo: Getty Images/Zac Macauley Photo and art credits are found on page 421, which should be considered an extension of the copyright page. ISBN 0-8053-6031-X
Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings, 1301 Sansome St., San Francisco, CA 94111. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions Department, 1900 E. Lake Ave., Glenview, IL 60025. For information regarding permissions, call (847) 486-2635. Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and the publisher was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Rose, Debra J. A multilevel approach to the study of motor control and learning/Debra J. Rose, Robert W. Christina.2nd ed. p.; cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-8053-6031-X 1. Motor learning. 2. Afferent pathways. [DNLM: 1. Motor Activity. 2. Learning. 3. Psychomotor Performance. WE 103 R795m 2006] I. Christina, Robert W. II. Title. QP301.R612.8'11dc22 2005006531

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CONTENTS

Preface xiii
SECTION ONE: MOTOR CONTROL Chapter 1: Introduction to Motor Control
Dening Motor Control 2 Open- and Closed-Loop Motor Control 4 Open-Loop Motor Control 4 Use of Open- versus Closed-Loop Motor Control 6 Theories of Motor Control 7 Reex Theories 7 Hierarchical Theories 9 Dynamical and Ecological Approaches 14 Does One Theoretical Approach Better Explain How Movements Are Controlled? 19 Characteristics of Human Action 21 Flexibility 21 Uniqueness 22 Consistency and Modiability 23 Does One Theory of Motor Control Better Explain the Characteristics of Skilled Actions? 23 The Degrees-of-Freedom Problem 26 Summary 29 Important Terminology 29 Suggested Further Reading 30 Test Your Understanding 30
Chapter 2: Scientic Measurement and Motor Control
Psychological Measures 32 Response Outcome Measures 32 Response Process Measures 41 Neurological Measures 51 Intracellular Recordings 52 Lesions and Ablations 52 Brain Mapping and Scanning Techniques

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Contents

Summary 55 Important Terminology 56 Suggested Further Reading 57 Test Your Understanding 57 Practical Activities 58
Chapter 3: Somatosensory Contributions to Action
General Properties of Sensory Receptors and Affernet Pathways Adequate Stimulation 60 Intensity Coding 61 Sensory Adaptation 61 The Transmission and Integration of Sensory Input 63 Somatosensation 65 Cutaneous Receptors 66 Proprioceptors 67 Transmission of Somatosensory Input 72 Dorsal Column System 72 Spinocerebellar Tract 74 Anterolateral System 74 Somatosensory Cortex 76 Disorders of the Somatosensory System 77 Application of Theory 79 The Conscious Sensation of Movement 80 Afferent Sources of Kinesthesis 80 The Conscious Sensation of Muscular Effort 83 Practical Applications 84 The Role of Feedback in Controlling Actions 86 Knowledge of Body Position 86 Planning and Modication of Action Plans 86 Learning or Relearning Movements 87 Errors in Performance 88 Summary 88 Important Terminology 89 Suggested Further Reading 90 Test Your Understanding 90 Practical Activities 91

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Chapter 4: Visual and Vestibular System
Contributions to Action 93 Neuromotor Processing of Vision 94 Reception of Visual Input 94 Transmission to the Brain 96 Topographic Organization in the Visual System 97 The Control of Eye Movements 97 Two Visual Systems? 99 Two Visual Systems and Motor Control 99 Psychological Studies of Perception and Action 100 Contrasting Theories of Visual Perception 100 Visual Guidance of Action 103 Reaching and Grasping 103 Standing Balance 104 Locomotion 105 Jumping from Different Heights 107 Catching Objects 107 Hitting Objects 108 Time-to-Contact Information 108 Visual Dominance 111 Role of Vision in Performance of Sport Skills 111 Disorders of the Visual System 113 Vestibular System 114 Anatomy of the Vestibular System 114 Peripheral Sensory Reception 116 Ascending Pathways 117 Descending Pathways 118 Vestibular-Visual Interactions 119 Adaptability of the Vestibular Ocular Reex 119 Vestibular Contributions to Equilibrium 120 Disorders of the Vestibular System 121 Summary 123 Important Terminology 124 Suggested Further Reading 125 Test Your Understanding 125 Practical Activities 126
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Chapter 5: Developing and Executing a Plan of Action
Planning the Action 128 Making the Decision to Act 128 Developing a General Plan 129 Adding Details to the Plan 129 Executing the Plan of Action 130 The Neuromotor Level of Analysis 130 The Limbic System 132 The Association Cortex 133 The Projection System 133 Motor Pathways 140 The Spinal System 144 Moment-to-Moment Control 144 Types of Motoneurons 145 Muscle Activation and Force Production 146 Musculoskeletal Contributions to Force 150 Subconscious Control of Movement 151 Solving the Motor Problem 157 Constraints on Action 158 Intrinsic Capabilities of the Performer 158 Task-Related Constraints 159 Environmental Constraints 161 Summary 162 Important Terminology 163 Suggested Further Reading 163 Test Your Understanding 163 Practical Activities 164
SECTION TWO: MOTOR LEARNING Chapter 6: Introduction to Motor Learning
Dening Motor Learning 167 Motor Learning Is Inferred from Performance 168 Performance Is Not a Perfect Index of Motor Learning 168 Motor Learning Produces Reliable Performance Changes 169 Motor Learning May Not Lead to Performance Improvement 170 Motor Learning and Instruction, Practice, and/or Experience 171

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Theories of Motor Learning 171 Adams Closed-Loop Theory 172 Schmidts Schema Theory 172 Ecological Theories of Perception and Action 175 How Does Motor Learning Really Occur? 176 Stages of Motor Learning 178 Fitts Three Stages of Learning 178 A Neo-Bernsteinian Perspective 179 Gentiles Two-Stage Model 181 Benets of the Three Models of Motor Learning 183 Readiness for Motor Learning 184 Developmental Qualities 185 Learning Styles 186 Motivational Qualities 189 Summary 190 Important Terminology 192 Suggested Further Reading 192 Test Your Understanding 193
Chapter 7: How Motor Learning Is Studied
Approaches to the Study of Motor Learning 195 Traditional Approach 195 Method versus Problem-Oriented Approach 197 Doctrine of Disproof Approach 198 Cooperative Approach between Basic and Applied Research 199 Assessing Motor Learning in Acquisition 200 Performance Curves 200 Setting a Criterion of Mastery 206 Over-Learning 207 Level of Automaticity 207 Limitations of Assessing Motor Learning in Acquisition 208 Assessing Motor Learning in Post-Acquisition 209 Retention Tests 209 Maintaining the LearningRetention Distinction 210 Transfer Tests 210 Development of a Knowledge Base 217
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Measuring Learning-Related Changes in Perception and Cognition 218 ExpertNovice Comparisons 212 Visual Occlusion Techniques 214 Eye Movement Recordings 215 Pattern Recognition and Memory Recall Tests 215 Development of a Knowledge Base 217 Measuring Learning-Related Changes in the Dynamics of Action Measures of Metabolic and Mechanical Efcacy 218 Identifying the Learning-Related Changes in Performance 219 Summary 220 Important Terminology 221 Suggested Further Reading 221 Test Your Understanding 221
Chapter 8: Setting the Stage for Motor Learning
Motivating People to Learn Motor Skills 224 Goal Setting 225 Praise and Criticism 226 Success and Failure 227 Self-Esteem 227 Competition and Cooperation 228 Introducing and Explaining Movement Skills 228 Setting the Stage for the Introduction 228 Delivering the Introduction 229 Delivering the Explanation 229 Select the Best Words to Use in the Explanation 229 Where to Direct the Learners Focus of Attention 230 Relate What Is Being Taught to the Learners Background 231 Demonstrating the Skill to Be Learned 233 Variables That Inuence the Effectiveness of Modeling 234 Evaluating the Effectiveness of a Model 242 Guidelines for Using Modeling 243 Theoretical Explanations of the Modeling Effect 244 Social Learning Theory 244 Direct Perception Approach 245
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Discovery Learning 245 Applying the Principles of Discovery Learning Summary 248 Important Terminology 249 Suggested Further Reading 250 Test Your Understanding 250

Chapter 9: Organizing the Practice Environment
Amount of Practice 253 Level of Original Learning 254 Level of Over-Learning 255 Structuring the Practice Session 256 Specicity of Practice 256 Variability of Practice 262 Organizing the Practice Schedule 264 Introducing Interference 264 Inuencing Factors 265 Theoretical Accounts of the Contextual Interference Effect 270 Elaboration View 271 Action-Plan Reconstruction View 271 Spacing/Distribution of Practice 272 Techniques for Enhancing the Effectiveness of Practice 274 Guidance Techniques 274 Whole-Task versus Part-Task Practice Strategies 275 Part-Task Practice Methods 277 Attentional Cuing and Whole Practice 277 Mental Practice 278 Mental Practice Conditions 279 Variables Limiting Our Understanding of Mental Practice Effects 282 Physiological Basis of Mental Practice 284 Summary 286 Important Terminology 288 Suggested Further Reading 288 Test Your Understanding 289 Practical Activities 290
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Chapter 10: Augmented Feedback and Motor Learning
Functions of Feedback in Motor Learning 293 Feedback as Information to Correct Performance Errors 293 Feedback as Positive Reinforcement to Strengthen Correct Performance 294 Feedback as Negative Reinforcement to Strengthen Correct Performance 295 Feedback as Punishment to Suppress Errors 296 Feedback as Motivation for Motor Learning 296 Form of the Feedback 297 Kinematic and Kinetic Visual Displays 298 Videotape Feedback 299 Augmented Sensory Feedback: Biofeedback 301 Precision of Augmented Feedback 303 Frequency of Augmented Feedback 303 Fading-Frequency Schedules of Knowledge of Results 305 Bandwidth Knowledge of Results 305 Reversed Bandwith Knowledge of Results 307 Summary Knowledge of Results 307 Average Knowledge of Results 309 Self-Regulated (Controlled) Augmented Feedback Schedules 312 Theoretical Explanations of the Frequency Effect 313 Guidance Hypothesis 313 Consistency Hypothesis 313 The Timing of Knowledge of Results 314 Summary 316 Important Terminology 318 Suggested Further Reading 319 Test Your Understanding 319
Chapter 11: Memory and Forgetting
Contemporary Concepts of Memory 322 Atkinson and Shiffrins Multistore Model Levels-of-Processing Framework 325 Neurobiology of Memory 326

321 323

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Types of Memory 328 Short-Term and Long-Term Memory 328 Declarative and Procedural Memory 328 The Relationship Between Learning and Memory 329 How Memory and Forgetting Are Studied 329 What Retention Test Performance Tells Us 330 Example of How the Retention of Motor Learning Is Studied Controlling for Variables That Produce Contaminating Effects Retention Test Measures 338 Theories of Forgetting 341 Trace Decay Theory 341 Interference Theory 342 Retrieval Theory 344 Which Theory Is Correct? 345 Factors That Inuence Memory Skill 345 Characteristics of the Movement Skill 346 The Level of Original Learning 350 The Learner 350 Disorders of Memory 352 Summary 353 Important Terminology 354 Suggested Further Reading 355 Test Your Understanding 355

332 334

Chapter 12: Transfer of Motor Learning

357 358

Transfer of Motor Learning Depends on Similarity Direction and Amount of Transfer 359 Extent of Transfer 362 Additional Factors Inuencing Transfer 367 Transfer of General Factors 370 Transfer of Principles 370 Learning to Learn 371 Two-Factor Theory 371 Types of Transfer 372 Vertical Transfer 372 Lateral Transfer 374 Near and Far Transfer 379
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How Transfer Is Studied 380 Experimental Design to Study Proactive Transfer Experimental Design to Study Retroactive Transfer Measuring Transfer 383 Summary 386 Important Terminology 388 Suggested Further Reading 388 Test Your Understanding 389 References 391 Credits 421 Author Index 423 Subject Index 433

380 382

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PREFACE

The second edition of a Multilevel Approach to Motor Control and Learning expands upon the goal of the rst edition: to provide a textbook for upper division undergraduate and entry-level graduate students in kinesiology that addresses motor control and motor learning concepts in the same text. What continues to differentiate this text from others that address one or both of these important subject areas is its multilevel approach. The content contained in this text is not only presented at a behavioral level of analysis but at a neurological level of analysis also. The signicantly expanded content at both levels of analysis in the second edition will be particularly appropriate for students interested in pursuing postgraduate studies in health care professions such as physical therapy and/or professional careers in rehabilitation settings. The book continues to be divided into two sections: Motor Control and Motor Learning. The rst sectionChapters 1 through 5presents an in-depth discussion of the prominent motor control theories and the scientic evidence in support of each theory and/or theoretical perspective. The underlying mechanisms that contribute to motor control are explored at both a behavioral and neurological level of analysis. At the completion of this section, the reader should have acquired a strong understanding of the behavioral and neurological processes that are involved in the planning and executing of many different movement skills. The second sectionChapters 6 through 12focuses on the theoretical concepts that underlie the acquisition, retention, and, in some cases, forgetting of learned movement skills. The multilevel theoretical approach is followed in this section also, as the behavioral changes associated with the learning of movement skills are once again linked to the underlying neurological mechanisms. This section of the book also emphasizes practical application as issues related to how motor skills should be introduced and practiced for optimal retention and transfer are discussed.

New to This Edition

1. A coauthor. It is a privilege and honor to be writing this second edition with my mentor, Dr. Robert Christina. Dr. Christina brings a wealth of knowledge and history of the eld of motor control and learning that adds a richness and depth to the content presented in a number of chapters, but most notably the motor learning section of the book. 2. A new chapter that addresses the issue of the transfer of learning. 3. Major restructuring and reordering of chapters. The reordering of chapters provides a more cohesive discussion of the subject matter and was based on reviewer feedback and our own critical review of the rst edition. 4. Expanded and updated content in all chapters. There is a more comprehensive discussion of the major theoretical approaches that have guided the research conducted in the areas of motor control and learning.
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5. Addition of practical activities at the end of selected chapters. These provide the instructor with opportunities to engage the students in classroom activities that add a practical dimension to the theoretical content presented in the book. 6. Addition of more highlight boxes. Each addresses an important theoretical concept or controversy, a classic experiment, or examples of how motor control and learning theory has been applied to practice.

Pedagogical Features

The pedagogical features in the second edition have been expanded to include practical activities at the end of selected chapters, additional summary boxes that emphasize important points presented in the text, and new highlights in every chapter that address pivotal research ndings from sport and clinical settings, important theoretical concepts, or practical applications of research.

Acknowledgements

This second edition would not have come to fruition without the signicant contributions and support of my coauthor, Bob Christina, and the encouragement of so many of my colleagues in motor control and learning who adopted the rst edition of this textbook over six years ago and kept asking when the second edition was going to be published. Of course, our book editors at BenjaminCummings kept asking us the same question, as we missed our submission deadlines on multiple occasions. Fortunately for us, Christina Pierson and Deirdre Espinoza both recognized that writing a textbook, even a second edition, is a serious undertaking and one that cannot be rushed if it is to be a product of which everyone can be proud. I would also personally like to thank my faculty colleagues in motor control and learning at Cal State-Fullerton, David Chen and Michelle Barr, who provided me with excellent feedback on the rst edition based on their own personal teaching experiences using the book. Finally, I wish to thank each and every undergraduate and graduate student who I have taught in the six years since this book was rst published. They have been my very best critics as the target audience for whom this book is intended. I hope that this second edition addresses many of their criticisms of the rst edition.