Computer Power Switch (the ON button) Keyboard Lock
Drive bays with CD-ROM drive and 3.5 Floppy Drive

Brightness Contrast

Secondary Serial Port (25-pin COMB) Keyboard Connector
Cooling Fan AC Power Cable

AC Power Cable

Parallel Printer Port Connector (LPT1)
How to Open a Desktop Case

Caution!

Whenever you open the case or work inside the computer there is danger of static electric shock. These shocks can permanently damage your equipment. Always ground yourself by touching the system cabinet before touching any internal component. We strongly recommend using an antistatic wrist strap attached to cabinet ground.
To open a desktop case: 1. Turn off the monitor and system unit power. Unplug the AC power cables and disconnect any other cables attached to the back of the system unit. 2. Remove the plastic bezel from the back of the case by pulling it away from the case. 3. Unscrew the five mounting screws at the back of the case that hold the case cover to the system unit chassis. 4. Slide the case cover back and up. Be careful not to snag any cables or connectors inside the case. 5. Set the case cover aside while you work on your system. 6. When through, reattach the case cover, screws, bezel, and cables in the reverse order.
The figures opposite show the plastic bezel, screw locations, and how to remove a desktop PCs cover.

Mounting Screws

Chassis Plastic Bezel

How to Open a Tower Case

Opening a tower case is almost identical to opening a desktop case. To open a tower case: 1. Turn off the monitor and system unit power. Unplug the AC power cables and disconnect any other cables attached to the back of the system unit. 2. Remove the plastic bezel from the rear of the case by pulling it away from the case. 3. Unscrew the six mounting screws at the back of the case that hold the case cover to the system unit chassis. 4. Slide the case cover back and up, taking care not to snag any cables or connectors inside. 5. Set the case cover aside while you work on your system. 6. Afterwards, reattach the case cover, screws, bezel, and cables in the reverse order.

The figures opposite show the plastic bezel, screw locations, and cover motion for a tower case.

Plastic Bezel

Chassis
Inside a Desktop Computer
Expansion Slots Power Supply

Hard Disk Drive

Mainboard

Front of Computer

Floppy Drives, CD-ROM Drives, and Tape Backup Units
The mainboard is the large circuit board at the bottom of the chassis. It is the heart of your system. All of the other components inside the case work for the mainboard. The power supply delivers electricity to the mainboard. The disk drives, keyboard connectors, and other parts of the system unit bring information to and from the mainboard. The figure above shows some of the most common components inside the computer.

Inside a Tower Computer

Power Supply

Expansion Slots

Tower systems have the same components as desktop systems. The figure above shows the mainboard and typical components inside a Tower case.
Chapter 2 - The Mainboard

2. The Mainboard

The mainboard is the largest circuit board in the computer. It contains the CPU (Central Processing Unit), the Level 2 cache, expansion slots, ports and connectors for other components, and the systems main memory, or RAM (Random Access Memory).

Mainboard Features

Standard Features: Intel Pentium (aka P54C) running at 75, 90, or 100 MHz Optional 256K or 512K Level 2 system cache, write-back, directmapped Integrated on-board floppy drive controller Two on-board IDE hard drive interface ports supporting up to 4 IDE devices (both are PCI local bus) Bi-directional Parallel Port (configurable through software) Two RS232, 16550 high-speed serial ports RAM Configurations: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,12, 16, 32, 64, 128, 192, 384MB, etc. (Banks must hold identical pairs) 384Mb maximum RAM capacity Flash BIOS, relocatable to system RAM to boost performance Five 16-bit ISA expansion slots Three 32-bit PCI local bus expansion slots Clock/calendar with on-board battery backup Energy saving, low power sleep mode Factory Installed Options: AMD SCSI host adapter socket on PCI bus AMD network controller on PCI bus

Chapter 2- The Mainboard

PCI Local Bus 32-Bit High Speed Expansion Slots
The three PCI local bus, high speed expansion slots move information at up to 132 MB/s. This offers a high performance, 32-bit interface to support local bus peripherals such as video cards, LAN adapters and hard disk drives.
Secondary Cache Subsystem
The secondary (Level 2) cache subsystem enhances the performance of the CPU. The onboard cache controller allows cache memory to provide an ultra high-speed, 12-15-nanosecond buffer between the CPU and conventional (50, 60, or 70ns) RAM. Your system can accommodate three cache configurations: 0K, 256K, or 512K of Level 2 cache. The single cache slot (labelled CACHE) is located next to the CPU.

Note: The on-board SCSI and LAN options are factory installed options only. The onboard SCSI and LAN option can only be upgraded at the time of purchase.

Business Audio Ports

The on-board business audio adapter chip (if installed) allows you to use a built-in external speaker jack and microphone input jack for fullfeatured audio support of many popular software packages. The external speaker jack and microphone input jack are mounted on a bracket at the back of the system unit.
Note: If you purchased your system with a sound card, you wont have the business audio feature.

Mainboard Diagram

16 bit ISA Expansion Slots BIOS Chip 32-bit PCI Expansion Slots
9-pin Serial Main Port COMA Power J2 Supply 16 bit ISA Connectors Expansion PS1 Slots
Keyboard Connector J1 25-pin Serial Port COMB J3 Parallel Port J4

slot 1

slot 2 slot 4 slot 3 slot 5

slot 6

slot 7

slot 8

Floppy Header J5 System Battery Primary IDE Hard Drive Header J7 Secondary IDE Hard Drive Header J8 SIMM Sockets for System RAM 10Base2 Adapter Header J9 SCSI Device Header J11 10BaseT Adapter Header J10 10BaseT Filter Chip Socket FD1 PC Speaker Header AJ1 Microphone Input Jack AJ2 Speaker Output Jack AJ3
PCI Configuration Header J6
PS2 Secondary Power Supply Connector

CPU Clock Jumper CLK1

Secondary CPU (future) U21

CACHE1 Jumper

Primary CPU U26
Level 2 SIMM Socket (System Cache)
LAN/SCSI Chip Socket (optional) U27

Audio Port Header AP4

Mute LED, Mute HDD LED & PC Power-On LED & LAN/SCSI Chip Clock Input (not used) & Speaker Header Keyboard Lock J13 Oscillator Y3 Reset Input (J15) J14

Mainboard Connectors

Connectors and headers are used to attach devices to the mainboard. Attached devices can be internal (e.g., hard disk indicator lights), or external (e.g., serial and parallel ports). The most commonly used connectors are shown in the Mainboard Diagram. The table below provides a brief summary. Table 1. - Mainboard Connectors Connector ID
J1 PS1 PS2 J2 J3 J4 J5 J6 J7 J8 J9 J10 J11 J13 J14 J15

Description

Chapter 3 - Using SETUP

3. Using SETUP
The SETUP utility program allows you to customize the power-on initialization parameters of your computers BIOS (Basic Input/Output System). You may need to use the SETUP program if you add components to your system. To run the BIOS SETUP program, press F2 during system boot. Once inside SETUP, you can reach different sections by pressing the right/left arrow keys on your keyboard. Inside each section, you can go into a subsection (indicated by a right-pointing triangle on the left side of the screen) by moving to it with the up/down arrow keys, then pressing the Enter key. Setups five sections are Main, Advanced, Security, Power, and Exit. Each section contains topics you can view or adjust to suit your systems needs. SETUP allows you to customize various system parameters, although our technicians optimize them for your system as shipped. If you inadvertently change BIOS values that cause your system to malfunction, you can simply reload the original factory default settings from ROM by entering SETUP, then pressing the F9 key. Otherwise, you can load the most recently saved settings from battery backed CMOS by pressing F10. Within SETUP, pressing F1 toggles the General Help window, while the right-hand panel describes the function of the currently highlighted topic. To change your BIOS settings, first use the arrow keys to highlight the desired topic, then press the space bar or the <+> or <->key on the numeric keypad to rotate through the available options. Note: only an item whose label is surrounded by [square brackets] may be changed; values not in brackets can only be viewed. Once youve finished customizing your BIOS settings, press the Esc key a couple times to reach the Exit menu. There you can decide if you really want to keep your changes, if youd prefer to return to the factory defaults, or if you want to go back to using your previously saved values. In any case, remember you can always change the BIOS settings again next time you boot up.

Main Menu

Your systems BIOS settings were configured at the factory to maximize performance with the options you ordered. Generally, you need to run SETUP only if you install a new or different hard drive, if the on-board battery fails, or if you otherwise add to or change your basic hardware. SETUPs Main Menu allows you to view and configure several basic parameters, including system time, date, and daylight savings, Diskette A and B, system memory (RAM) timing, memory shadowing, boot sequence options, and video system type. The Main Menu lets you configure four PCI local bus IDE devices: IDE Adapter 0 Master (Drive letter, capacity in megabytes) IDE Adapter 0 Slave (Drive letter, capacity in megabytes) IDE Adapter 1 Master (Drive letter, capacity in megabytes) IDE Adapter 1 Slave (Drive letter, capacity in megabytes) Each of the four IDE Adapter subsections lets you view and customize the settings for a separate PCI local bus IDE device attached directly to you mainboard. The subsections are described on the following pages. SETUPs Main Menu also contains subsections for Memory Control, Memory Shadow, and Boot Sequence. Finally, System Memory and Extended Memory are displayed. At the very bottom is a chart showing how to navigate and change values in SETUP.

Main Menu Options

System Time
Sets the real-time clock, using a 24-hour format. During the power-up sequence, the real time is read and saved in memory for use by the operating system. After boot up, the operating system updates the system time.

System Date

Sets the real-time date for month, day, and year. During the power-up sequence, this information is read and saved in memory for use by the operating system to determine the current date. After completing the power-up sequence, the operating system updates the current date.

Daylight Savings

Adjusts system clock for daylight savings time. Default: Enabled.

Diskette Drive A:

Specifies the size and capacity of the floppy-disk drive installed as drive A. Options are: 360K, 720K, 1.2M, 1.44M, and 2.88M.

Diskette Drive B:

Specifies the size and capacity of the floppy-disk drive installed as drive B.
IDE Adapters (Four Provided)
Each of the four IDE Adapter subsections allows you to view and change configurations of the IDE devices attached to your on-board IDE Hard Drive connectors, J7 and J8. The IDE Adapter subsections list the IDE devices that are currently installed. Your Primary hard drive (J7) is listed as IDE Adapter 0 Master. You can attach a second hard drive to the same cable as IDE Adapter 0 Slave, then two more devices on the Secondary connector (J8) as IDE Adapter 1 Master, or IDE Adapter 1 Slave. The following page describes the contents of each IDE Adapter subsection.
Note: If you attach two drives to a single drive cable, it doesnt matter whether or not the Master drive is connected to the end connector. Just be sure that one drive is configured as Master and the other drive is configured as Slave.
Autotype Fixed Disk This utility detects and configures your IDE Adapter, if the device conforms to ANSI technical specifications. ZEOS drives are configured at the factory, so to add a hard drive you just run Autotype. If Autotype is successful, it will identify your hard drive type and display the drive parameters. Otherwise, you can select one of the established drive type numbers from the Type list, or select Type USER to set Cylinders, Heads, Sectors/Track and Write Precomp yourself (according to the information supplied by the devices manufacturer).

PCI Devices

The PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) Devices subsection allows you to enable or disable the integrated SCSI and LAN options. Enable On-board SCSI Enables/disables the built-in SCSI port, if present. Default: set at factory. On-board Ethernet Enables/disables the on-board AMD Ethernet controller, if present. Default: set at factory.

Security Options

The Security Menu allows you to password-protect system access, a way of safeguarding information. When passwords are enabled, users must type the proper password to access the protected part of the system.
Note: 1. Its easy to forget a password, so we strongly recommend writing down your passwords and storing them in a secure place. 2. If you type the User password on entering SETUP, you cannot change the Supervisor Password or Diskette Access settings.
If you forget the password, your system will not operate. You will have to completely clear the CMOS memory and reenter your entire system configuration. Write down your password and store it in a safe place.
The following security items are available: Set Supervisor Password Set User Password Password on Boot Diskette Access Fixed disk boot sector System Backup Reminder Virus Check Reminder

Supervisor Password is

Allows you to enter a system supervisor password. This password controls access to all features of your system.

User Password is

Accessible only after Supervisor Password is enabled, this allows you to enter a system user password. You cant use the User Password to alter the Supervisor Password in SETUP.

Password on boot

When enabled, the system asks you for a password on boot. The system will boot only after the correct supervisor or user password is entered. Default: Disabled.

Diskette access

Active only when a Supervisor password is enabled, this specifies which level of password (Supervisor or User) is required on bootup to use the floppy disk drives. This can prevent unauthorized transfer of data. Default: Supervisor.
Note: All diskette drive access can be denied (including system diskettes) by 1) setting a Supervisor password, 2) setting Password on Boot to Disabled, then 3) setting Diskette Access to Supervisor.

Fixed disk boot sector

When enabled, write protects the boot sector on your hard drive to protect against viruses. Default: Disabled.

System backup reminder

When enabled, this periodically displays a boot reminder message to back up your system. Options: Daily, Weekly, Monthly, Disabled. Default: Disabled.

Virus check reminder

When enabled, this periodically displays a boot reminder message to scan for viruses. Options: Daily, Weekly, Monthly, Disabled. Default: Disabled.

Power Options

The Power menu lets you tell your system to enter a low-power Standby mode when it is idle for a specified time. Standby minimizes your systems energy consumption while allowing you to resume work within moments.

Power Savings

Lets you choose the how to conserve power used by your CPU, your fixed disk drives, and your monitor. Settings: Customize (default), Maximum, Medium, Minimum, and Disabled. This allows you to opt for one of three preset configurations, customize the Standby settings yourself, or disable power savings altogether. The list below describes what each setting controls: Standby Timeout controls how long (1 minute to 4 hours, or Disabled) your system must be idle before it enters Standby mode. Standby CPU Speed dictates the level of CPU activity (Max, High, Medium, Low) during Standby. Fixed Disk Timeout controls how long (1-16 minutes, or Disabled) an idle system waits before stopping the hard disk motor. CRT can be set to OFF in Standby or always ON.
Standby Timer Reset Events
When enabled, these two settings prevent the system from entering Standby mode while youre using the keyboard or the mouse. Keyboard Keeps system from entering Standby mode while youre using the keyboard. Default: Enabled. Mouse Keeps system from entering Standby mode while youre using the mouse. Default: COM1 (IRQ4).

Standby Break Events

When set to Auto, this enables the system to resume full speed operation for as long as the specified IRQ is active. For example, this would allow you to wake up a remote computer via its modem, which uses an IRQ. You can set this parameter for 16 hardware IRQs, from IRQ0 to IRQ15. Default: All IRQs set to Auto.

How a Floppy Drive Works

Floppy drives have two primary connectors, a ribbon cable called the data cable, and a power connection to the power supply. The ribbon cable connects the back of the floppy drive with the floppy controller port J5 on the mainboard. Data ribbon cables often have two connectors. If you have more than one floppy drive on your system, they often share the same ribbon cable. The data cable also has a red stripe. Whenever connecting or disconnecting the ribbon cable, be sure to attach the cable connectors so the red stripe is pointing toward pin 1 of the connector. Pin 1 is often labelled with a small triangle or filled in corner.
Floppy Drive Primary Floppy Drive Connector DC Power from Power Supply
Second Floppy Drive Connector Floppy Drive Ribbon Data Cable Red Stripe (Pin 1) Pin 1 notch on mainboard connector Mainboard Red Stripe (Pin 1)
Pin 1 Mark on Cable Connector
Floppy Drive Cable Connector
How an IDE Hard Drive Works
IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) hard drives are the most common hard drives and are the most likely to be installed on your system. IDE devices have most of the electronics or smarts built into the drive, rather than installed on a separate controller card or on the motherboard. IDE hard drives have two main connections a ribbon cable called the data cable and a power connection to the power supply. The ribbon cable attaches to the back of the drive and connects to the IDE controller port J7 or J8 on the mainboard. Whenever connecting or disconnecting the ribbon cable, be sure to attach the data cable so the red stripe points toward pin 1 on the connector. Most drives also have configuration jumpers at the back of the drive for setting drive identification and resistors. See your hard drive users guide for complete information.
Keyboard Connector J1 Parallel Port J4 Floppy Connector J5
Primary IDE Hard Drive Header J7 System RAM SIMM Sockets

Red Stripe (pin 1)

Secondary IDE Hard Drive Header J8

How a CD-ROM Drive Works

CD-ROM drives read information from compact discs, or CDs. The ROM in CD-ROM stands for Read Only Memory. Compact discs are read-only--you can read information from them, but cannot add new files or information onto them as you can do with a floppy disk or hard disk. Despite their limitations, CDs have some distinct advantages. CDs can store large amounts of information--one compact disk can store as much information as 500 floppy disks. With the right software, you can even listen to music on your CD-ROM drive. There are many types of CD-ROM drives. Most have three primary connectors, a power connector, a data cable connector, and an audio connector. The power connector is just like the DC power connector on floppy drives and hard disk drives. It accepts DC power from the computers internal power supply. The data cable is a flat ribbon cable that connects the drive with some type of controller. Some drives use a dedicated controller card inserted into one of the expansion slots on the mainboard. Your IDE CD-ROM drive connects to the 16-bit IDE controller port on the mainboard (J8) or to an IDE controller card inserted into one of the expansion slots. Still other drives use a CD-ROM controller port mounted on a sound card in one of the expansion slots. Most CD-ROM drives also have an audio connector where you can connect headphones or computer speakers. If your system has a sound card and speakers installed, the CD-ROM drives audio connector probably can be connected to the sound card. For detailed information about your CD-ROM drive, check the manufacturers documentation.

(more steps, next page)

Installing SIMMs (continued)

Retaining clip

Retaining Clip

Inserting a SIMM

5. Ensure the SIMM seats correctly. If not, remove and repeat Step 4. 6. Gently push the top edge toward the retainer clips until the clips snap into place. 7. Reinstall system cover. After completing the installation, your ROM BIOS will determine the amount of memory installed; however you may need to change the CPU/ DRAM Speed option in your system SETUP program. Refer to Using SETUP earlier for detailed instructions.
Adding System Cache Memory
Secondary cache memory can speed up memory intensive applications and greatly enhance your CPUs performance. You add cache memory by adding a single in-line memory module (SIMM) into the secondary system cache SIMM socket on the mainboard. Your system mainboard will hold one cache SIMM of 64-bit, 12- to 15nanosecond memory. Caution!
You must use a 3-volt SIMM when you add cache memory. If you arent sure, contact ZEOS Technical Support before purchasing or installing a cache SIMM. Note: System cache SIMMs are not the same as RAM memory SIMMs. Do not try to install cache SIMMs in your RAM memory sockets, or RAM SIMMs in your cache SIMM socket.
Although installing secondary cache memory is easy and straightforward, a few simple precautions will ease the installation. Before you begin, make note of your systems current SETUP parameters. You can access the SETUP screen by pressing F2 at boot. Copy the SETUP parameters to a piece of paper. Also, all SIMMs are extremely sensitive to static electricity. Be sure to use an antistatic wrist band and ground yourself by touching the computer case before you touch the mainboard or handle any chips. To install secondary cache memory: 1. Turn off the system power and unplug the AC power cord. Remove system cover (see Opening the Case, earlier). 2. Locate the secondary system cache memory SIMM socket. The figure above shows where to find the socket on the mainboard. 3. If you are upgrading your system cache memory, remove the SIMM you are replacing by gently pulling the SIMM out of the socket. 4. Grasping a new SIMM by the edge, remove it from the antistatic

bag and press it into the socket. Caution!
Static RAM is extremely sensitive to static electricity. These shocks can permanently damage your equipment. Use an antistatic wrist strap attached to cabinet ground. Be sure to ground yourself by touching the system cabinet before beginning this procedure.
5. Reinstall system cover, plug in AC power, and turn on the computer as you normally would. 6. Make sure the External Cache option on the Memory Control Menu of the Advanced System Setup Menu is Enabled. Also check your system SETUP to be sure it hasnt changed. If any settings have changed, reenter the correct values and re-boot the system.
SIMM Socket for Level 2 System Cache

Installing a New CPU

Static electricity can permanently destroy your CPU. Always ground yourself by touching the system cabinet before beginning the following procedure. We strongly recommend using an antistatic wrist strap attached to cabinet ground.
To install a new CPU: 1. Open the case and locate the CPU socket on the mainboard. If you need help see How to Open a Desktop Case and Mainboard Diagram, earlier. 2. Lift up the ZIF (Zero Insertion Force) socket arm to the open position. This will loosen the pressure on the pins of the old CPU chip. Carefully lift the old CPU and heat sink out of the socket. 3. Important: You must align the new CPU over the socket on the board exactly like the old CPU. Make absolutely sure the Pin-1 notch on the CPU chip aligns with Pin-1 on the ZIF socket. 4. Place the new CPU into the socket and press gently. Be careful not to bend any pins on the CPU. Once the CPU is firmly seated in the socket, carefully lower the ZIF arm back down to the closed position. 5. Attach the heat sink to the new CPU. If your new CPU is exactly the same size as your old CPU, you can reuse your old heat sink. If your new CPU is not the same size as your old one, you must use the heat sink supplied with your new CPU. If your heat sink is a peel and stick type, peel off the adhesive layerand stick the heat sink onto the new CPU. If your heat sink uses a retaining clip, place the heat sink on the chip, then slide the retaining clip over the heat sink until it snaps onto the sides of the CPU.

6. Set the CLK jumper to match the speed of your new CPU. If you need help with this jumper, see Mainboard Jumpers Diagram, earlier. 7. Close case and boot as you normally would.
CPU (heat sink not shown)
When ZIF Release Lever is down and locked, the CPU cannot be removed.
ZIF (Zero Insertion Force) Release Lever. When pointing straight up, CPU chip can be eased into or out of its socket without forcing it.
Chapter 5 - Mainboard Specifications
5. Mainboard Specifications
CPU Power Consumption Clock Speeds Chipset ISA bus speed PCI local bus speed Memory Types Memory Speeds Memory Configurations Data path Expansion slots (8) Secondary Cache Mapping Secondary Cache Write policy Secondary Cache Capacity Secondary Cache Type Secondary Cache Speed Intel Pentium-90/100 Approx. 25Watts (varies with CPU, memory) 90, 100 MHz Intel Neptune chipset 8.25 MHz for 33MHz systems 8.33 MHz for 25MHz systems up to 133 MB/s (33MHz) up to 100 MB/s (25MHz) 1, 2, 4, 16, 32MB x36 or x32 SIMMs 50, 60, 70ns See table, page 52 8, 16, 32, 64-bits Five 16-bit ISA Three 32-bit PCI local bus Direct-mapped Write-back 0KB (standard), 256KB, or 512KB One 256KB or 512KB SIMM 12 or 15-nanosecond
Mainboard Environmental Specifications
Operating Temperature Storage Temperature Operating Humidity 0C to 40C -20C to 60C Up to 100% non-condensing
9-Pin Serial Port (J2) Pin Assignment

Header Pin Number

DB9 Connector Pin Number

Signal

DCD, Data Carrier Detect DSR, Data Set Ready RXD, Receive Data RTS, Request to Send TXD, Transmit Data CTS, Clear To Send DTR, Data Terminal Ready RI, Ring Indicator GND, Ground
25-Pin Serial Port (J3) Pin Assignment
DB25 Connector Pin Number
DCD, Data Carrier Detect RXD, Receive Data TXD, Transmit Data DTR, Data Terminal Ready GND, Ground DSR, Data Set Ready RTS, Request to Send CTS, Clear to Send RI, Ring Indicator
5 - GND, Ground 9 - RI, Ring Indicator 4 - DTR, Data Terminal Ready 3 - TXD, Transmit Data 2 - RXD, Receive Data 1 - DCD, Data Carrier Detect 8 - CTS, Clear To Send 7 - RTS, Request to Send 6 - DSR, Data Set Ready
22 - RI, Ring Indicator 8 - DCD, Data Carrier Ready 7 - GND, Ground 6 - DSR, Data Set Ready 5 - CTS, Clear to Send 4 - RTS, Request to Send 3 - RXD, Receive Data 2 - TXD, Transmit Data 20 - DTR, Data Terminal Ready
Parallel Port (J4) Pin Assignment
Header Pin Number Parallel Port Connector Pin Number
STB, Strobe PD0, Data Bit 0 PD1, Data Bit 1 PD2, Data Bit 2 PD3, Data Bit 3 PD4, Data Bit 4 PD5, Data Bit 5 PD6, Data Bit 6 PD7, Data Bit 7 ACK, Acknowledge Busy, Busy PE, Paper Empty SLCT, Select AFD, Auto Feed ERR, Error INIT, Initialize SLIN, Select Input GND, Ground GND, Ground GND, Ground GND, Ground GND, Ground GND, Ground GND, Ground GND, Ground

1 - STB, Strobe 2 - PD0, Data Bit - PD1, Data Bit - PD2, Data Bit - PD3, Data Bit - PD4, Data Bit - D5, Data Bit - PD6, Data Bit - PD7, Data Bit - ACK, Acknowledge 11 - Busy, Busy 12 - PE, Paper Empty 13 - SLCT, Select 14 - AFD, Auto Feed 15 - ERR, Error 16 - INIT, Initialize 17 - SLIN, Select Input 18 - GND, Ground 19 - GND, Ground 20 - GND, Ground 21 - GND, Ground 22 - GND, Ground 23 - GND, Ground 24 - GND, Ground 25 - GND, Ground

Handy Cheat Sheet

Here are some of the most often needed or forgotten notes. CTRL-ALT-DEL... Warm Reboot Reset button, or Power button... Cold Reboot F2 during power up... Access SETUP CTRL-BREAK, or CTRL-C.. Pause or Break an application or batch file DOS Commands COPY [filename] [drive:][path][newfilename].copies a file FORMAT [drive:].. erases and formats a disk DIR [drive:][path]. lists the files in a certain drive and directory DEL [filename]...deletes a file MD[newdirectory]... makes a new directory RD[directoryname]. removes and erases an empty, old directory RENAME [oldfilename][newfilename]. renames a file CHKDSK [drive:].. displays a status report for a disk CD[path].. changes to a different directory CLS... clears the screen Common DOS file extensions.BAK backup file.BAT.... batch file.COM... command program file.EXE...executable program file.SYS....system file.INI... Windows initialization file.PIF.. Windows program information file README files.. text files with special instructions
Windows Shortcuts Ctrl-C... copy to clipboard Ctrl-V..paste or copy from the clipboard Ctrl-X... delete and copy to clipboard Alt-Tab... toggle between open applications Alt-Esc.. jump to next open application Wildcards - wildcards are special characters that can represent any other valid numbers, letters, or symbols in a file name.
The asterisk represents any number of other characters. For example: *.BAK would represent any file with the extension BAK. GONOW.* would represent all files named GONOW with any extension. The question mark represents one single character. For example: GONOW.?XE would represent any file named GONOW with an extension ending in XE. ?ONOW.EX? would represent any five character filename ending in ONOW with EX as the first two characters of its extension.

Glossary

This glossary provides general definitions of key terms. For an expanded list look in standard reference books on computers.
Address - A number or expression representing the physical location of a device or a piece of data. Application Program - A word processor, spreadsheet, desktop publisher or other program that allows interaction with the user. AUTOEXEC.BAT File - An MS-DOS batch file containing commands which execute automatically when you turn on your computer. Batch File - A file containing several commands that execute in sequence as a group, or batch. MS-DOS batch files must have a filename extension of.BAT. Boot - Short for Bootstrap. Transfer of a disk operating system program from storage on floppy disk or hard disk drive to computers working memory. Boot Disk - A disk with an operating system installed which loads the system on power up. Character - Anything that can print in a single space on the page or the screen. Includes numbers, letters, punctuation marks, and graphic symbols. Command Processor - The part of an operating system that processes commands entered by you. The command processor in MS-DOS is contained in the COMMAND.COM file. CPU - Central Processing Unit. The piece of hardware which interprets instructions, performs the tasks you indicate, keeps track of stored data, and controls all input and output operations. Crash - A malfunction in the computer hardware or software, usually causing loss of data. Cursor - The arrow, vertical I-beam or other screen object that shows where you can click to select something onscreen. See Insertion point. Diagnostics - The tests and procedures the computer performs to check its internal circuitry and set up its configuration. See POST. DIP Switches - Small switches on a piece of hardware such as a CPU, a printer, or an option card. DIP switch settings control various functions and provide a system with information about itself. DIP stands for Dual InLine Package. Directory - A list of the files stored on a disk or a part of a disk. Often depicted onscreen by a small folder. Disk Drive - The physical device which allows the computer to read from and write to a disk. A floppy disk drive has a disk slot into which you insert floppy disks. A hard disk drive is permanently fixed inside the system unit. DMA - Direct Memory Access. Process where a hard drive, LAN adapter or other device transfers data directly to/from system RAM, bypassing the CPU. DOS - Disk Operating System. A computer program which continuously runs and mediates between the computer user and the Application Program, and allows access to disk data by disk filenames. The Disk Operating System controls the computers input and output functions. See Operating System. File - A group of related pieces of information called records, or entries, stored together on disk. Text files consist of words and sentences. Program files consist of codes and are used by computers to interpret and carry out instructions. Floppy disk - a flat piece of flexible plastic coated with magnetic material and used to store data permanently. Format - To prepare a new disk (or erase an old one) so it can receive information. Formatting a disk divides it into tracks and sectors which create addressable locations on it. Hard Disk Drive - Commonly called rigid disk drives, or fixed disk drives. Unlike floppy disks, hard disks are fixed in place inside the system unit. They can process data faster and store many more files than floppy disks. Hardware - Any physical component of a computer system, such as a monitor, printer, keyboard, or CPU. IDE - Integrated Drive Electronics. An IDE drive has the controller electronics built into the drive itself and is connected directly to the mainboard or to an adapter card. Insertion Point - A blinking vertical marker which shows where you can type words or numbers. Sometimes called Text Cursor. See Cursor. Jumper - A small electrical connector that alters some of the computers functions. Short (makes a connection) or Non-Short (no connection). Kilobyte (KB) - A unit used to measure storage space (in a computers memory or on a disk). One kilobyte

equals 1024 bytes. LED - Light Emitting Diode. A diode that illuminates when electricity passes through it, like the indicator lights on the front panel of the computer. Local Bus - A set of addresses, data, and control signals that interface directly with the host CPU. Mainboard - also Motherboard. A printed circuit board into which other circuit boards can be plugged. Usually, it contains the CPU, connectors for memory (SIMMs), secondary cache, adapter sockets and expansion slots for add-on devices. Memory - Computer chips that make data quickly available to the CPU. They can store data permanently (ROM) or temporarily (RAM). MHz - 1 Megahertz = one million (Mega) cycles per second (Hertz). Operating System - A body of programs, such as MS-DOS, that coordinate the activities of a computer. It determines how programs run and supervises all input and output. PCI - Peripheral Component Interconnect. PCI is an industry standard for local bus peripheral expansion. Parallel Port - also Printer Port. A 25-pin Input/ Output connector usually used for printers. Peripheral - A device (such as, a printer or a modem) connected to a computer that depends on the computer for its operation. Port - A physical input/output socket on a computer where you can connect a peripheral. POST - Power-On Self Test. An initial diagnostic test a computer performs to check its hardware. RAM - also DRAM. Random Access Memory. Small chips or modules that provide the CPU rapid access to data. Software programs and files reside in RAM while being used. RAM is called volatile memory because it evaporates when you turn off the power. Read - To copy data from one area to another. For example, when you open a text file stored on disk, the computer reads the data from the disk and displays it on the screen. Reset - To reload a computers operating system so you can retry a task or begin using a different operating system. Resetting clears RAM. ROM - Read Only Memory. A portion of memory that can only be read and cannot be used for temporary storage. ROM retains its contents even when you turn off the power. SETUP - This refers (usually) to the program that is used to load the CMOS data base with input from the user. SETUP sets the date, time, and configuration of disk drives installed on the system. Software - The programs that enable your computer to perform the tasks and functions you indicate. Application programs are software. SRAM - Static RAM. Memory chips that do not require refresh circuitry, as do conventional RAM chips. SRAMs operate in the 10-30 nanosecond range, which is faster than RAM chips. SRAM is often used as a buffer between fast CPUs and RAM. Subdirectory - A directory within another directory. System Disk - A disk that contains the operating system. A Boot Disk. Write - To store data on a disk. Write-Protect - To prevent a floppy disk from being overwritten by placing a write-protect tab over the notch on the side of the floppy disk (5.25") or setting the write-protect switch (3.5"). When a floppy disk is write-protected, you cannot erase, change, or record over its contents. ZEOS - Greek god of computers.

stanbul Teknik niversitesi
Elektrik Elektronik Fakltesi Telekomnikasyon Mhendislii Blm

TEL 432 E

DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING

-Homework 4-

Batuhan Osmanoglu 040010250
Segmentation Algorithms Introduction Five segmentation methods are employed on 3 images such as: face, hand-written text and sky. Original gray level images are given below. Face: Text: Sky:
Histograms of these images are;
The first segmentation method is Mean Gray Level. Then, we will continue with, Two Peaks, Edge Pixels, Iterative Selection and Percentage of Black Pixels. Mean Gray Level Mean Gray Level Algorithm is simply applied by summing up all the pixel values in the image and then taking the mean of it to obtain the threshold. MatLab code and output images are given below. Image Threshold Value Outputs Face Image 71 Text Image 189 Sky Image 126
MatLab Code %TEL 432E HW 4 %MEAN GRAY LEVEL %Segmentation imface = imread('face.jpg'); imtext = imread('text.jpg'); imsky = imread('sky.jpg'); %FACE %calculate mean grey level [rmax cmax]=size(imface); T=0; T=sum(sum(imface)); T=T/(rmax*cmax) imface(find(imface<T))=0; imface(find(imface>=T))=1; %Text %calculate mean grey level [rmax cmax]=size(imtext); T=0; T=sum(sum(imtext)); T=T/(rmax*cmax) imtext(find(imtext<T))=0; imtext(find(imtext>=T))=1; %Sky %calculate mean grey level [rmax cmax]=size(imsky); T=0; T=sum(sum(imsky)); T=T/(rmax*cmax) imsky(find(imsky<T))=0; imsky(find(imsky>=T))=1; figure(1);colormap('gray'); imagesc(imface); figure(2);colormap('gray'); imagesc(imtext); figure(3);colormap('gray'); imagesc(imsky);
Two Peaks Method of Two Peaks is employed by finding two local maximum points in the histogram and defining a threshold separating them.
Image Threshold Value Outputs

Face Image 55

Text Image 129

Sky Image 153

MatLab Code %TEL 432E HW 4 %Two Peaks %Segmentation imface = imread('face.jpg'); imtext = imread('text.jpg'); imsky = imread('sky.jpg'); %FACE histog=hist(double(imface),256); histogram=sum(histog'); figure(2);plot(histogram,'r');title('face-histogram'); locmax=find(histogram==max(histogram)); T=zeros(1,256); for hi=1:256 T(hi)=histogram(hi)*(hi-locmax)^2; end locmaxx=find(T==max(T)); tresh=(locmax+locmaxx)/2 imface(find(imface<tresh))=0; imface(find(imface>=tresh))=1; %Text histog=hist(double(imtext),256); histogram=sum(histog'); figure(4);plot(histogram,'r');title('text-histogram'); locmax=find(histogram==max(histogram)); T=zeros(1,256); for hi=1:256 T(hi)=histogram(hi)*(hi-locmax)^2; end locmaxx=find(T==max(T)); tresh=(locmax+locmaxx)/2 imtext(find(imtext<tresh))=0; imtext(find(imtext>=tresh))=1;
%Sky histog=hist(double(imsky),256); histogram=sum(histog'); figure(6);plot(histogram,'r');title('sky-histogram'); locmax=find(histogram==max(histogram)); T=zeros(1,256); for hi=1:256 T(hi)=histogram(hi)*(hi-locmax)^2;
end locmaxx=find(T==max(T)); tresh=(locmax+locmaxx)/2 imsky(find(imsky<tresh))=0; imsky(find(imsky>=tresh))=1;
figure(1);colormap('gray'); imagesc(imface);title('face image'); figure(3);colormap('gray'); imagesc(imtext);title('text image'); figure(5);colormap('gray'); imagesc(imsky);title('sky image'); Edge Pixels Laplacian is calculated for each pixel and then histogram of pixels with large laplacians is created. Using this new histogram a threshold can be detected using any of the previous methods. Image Threshold Value Outputs Face Image 54 Text Image 109 Sky Image 82

MatLab Code %TEL 432E HW 4 %EDGE PIXELS %Segmentation imface = imread('face.jpg'); imtext = imread('text.jpg'); imsky = imread('sky.jpg'); %FACE %calculate laplacian [rmax cmax]=size(imface); L=zeros(size(imface)); for r=2:rmax-1 for c=2:cmax-1 L(r,c)=double(imface(r1,c))+double(imface(r+1,c))+double(imface(r,c1))+double(imface(r,c+1))-4*double(imface(r,c)); end end ef=rmax*cmax*0.85;%number of eightyfive percent of pixels LL=zeros(size(L)); %new image with only eighty five percent and above ki=0; while ki<ef loc=find(L==max(max(L))); LL(loc)=imface(loc); L(loc)=0; %do not take this pixel into account again ki=ki+max(size(loc)); end %use LL to find Treshold T=sum(sum(LL)); T=T/(ef) imface(find(imface<T))=0; imface(find(imface>=T))=1; %Text %calculate laplacian [rmax cmax]=size(imtext); L=zeros(size(imtext)); for r=2:rmax-1 for c=2:cmax-1
L(r,c)=double(imtext(r1,c))+double(imtext(r+1,c))+double(imtext(r,c1))+double(imtext(r,c+1))-4*double(imtext(r,c)); end end ef=rmax*cmax*0.85;%number of eightyfive percent of pixels LL=zeros(size(L)); %new image with only eighty five percent and above ki=0; while ki<ef loc=find(L==max(max(L))); LL(loc)=imtext(loc); L(loc)=0; %do not take this pixel into account again ki=ki+max(size(loc)); end %use LL to find Treshold T=sum(sum(LL)); T=T/(ef) imtext(find(imtext<T))=0; imtext(find(imtext>=T))=1;
%SKY %calculate laplacian [rmax cmax]=size(imsky); L=zeros(size(imsky)); for r=2:rmax-1 for c=2:cmax-1 L(r,c)=double(imsky(r1,c))+double(imsky(r+1,c))+double(imsky(r,c1))+double(imsky(r,c+1))-4*double(imsky(r,c)); end end ef=rmax*cmax*0.85;%number of eightyfive percent of pixels LL=zeros(size(L)); %new image with only eighty five percent and above ki=0; while ki<ef loc=find(L==max(max(L))); LL(loc)=imsky(loc); L(loc)=0; %do not take this pixel into account again ki=ki+max(size(loc)); end %use LL to find Treshold T=sum(sum(LL));
T=T/(ef) imsky(find(imsky<T))=0; imsky(find(imsky>=T))=1; figure(1);colormap('gray'); imagesc(imface); figure(2);colormap('gray'); imagesc(imtext); figure(3);colormap('gray'); imagesc(imsky); Iterative Threshold Method In this method a threshold is iteratively calculated and refined by consecutive passes through the image. Image Threshold Value Outputs Face Image 76 Text Image 152 Sky Image 135
MatLab Code %TEL 432E HW 4 %Iterative Selection %Segmentation clear all; clc; imface = imread('face.jpg'); imtext = imread('text.jpg'); imsky = imread('sky.jpg'); tresholds=zeros(1,3); %FACE %calculate mean grey level [rmax cmax]=size(imface); T=0; T=sum(sum(imface)); T=T/(rmax*cmax) Tnew =-1; while round(T)~=round(Tnew) %not equal if Tnew~=-1 T=Tnew; end Tlow= sum(sum(imface(find(imface<T))))/max(size(find(imface<T))) Thigh= sum(sum(imface(find(imface>=T))))/max(size(find(imface>=T))) Tnew=(Tlow+Thigh)/2 end

imface(find(imface<T))=0; imface(find(imface>=T))=1; figure(1);colormap('gray'); imagesc(imface); tresholds(1,1)=T; %Text %calculate mean grey level [rmax cmax]=size(imtext); T=0; T=sum(sum(imtext)); T=T/(rmax*cmax) Tnew =-1; while round(T)~=round(Tnew) %not equal if Tnew~=-1 T=Tnew; end
Tlow= sum(sum(imtext(find(imtext<T))))/max(size(find(imtext<T))) Thigh= sum(sum(imtext(find(imtext>=T))))/max(size(find(imtext>=T))) Tnew=(Tlow+Thigh)/2 end imtext(find(imtext<T))=0; imtext(find(imtext>=T))=1; figure(2);colormap('gray'); imagesc(imtext); tresholds(1,2)=T; %Sky %calculate mean grey level [rmax cmax]=size(imsky); T=0; T=sum(sum(imsky)); T=T/(rmax*cmax) Tnew =-1; while round(T)~=round(Tnew) %not equal if Tnew~=-1 T=Tnew; end Tlow= sum(sum(imsky(find(imsky<T))))/max(size(find(imsky<T))) Thigh= sum(sum(imsky(find(imsky>=T))))/max(size(find(imsky>=T))) Tnew=(Tlow+Thigh)/2 end imsky(find(imsky<T))=0; imsky(find(imsky>=T))=1; figure(3);colormap('gray'); imagesc(imsky); tresholds(1,3)=T; thresholds Percentage of Black Pixels Assuming that percentage of black pixels is a constant for some types of images, lower pixel values up to the number of assumed pixels are segmented as background or black. Image Threshold Percentage of Black Pixels Face Image Text Image Sky Image 111 50

Outputs

MatLab Code %TEL 432E HW 4 %Percentage of Black Pixels %Segmentation clear all; clc; imface = imread('face.jpg'); imtext = imread('text.jpg'); imsky = imread('sky.jpg'); tresholds=zeros(2,3); %FACE %Assumption of black pixel percentage p=60;%percentage of Black pixels [rmax cmax]=size(imface); pxn=rmax*cmax; %number of pixels T=0; while max(size(find(imface==0))) < p*pxn/100 T=T+1; imface(find(imface==T))=0; end imface(find(imface>T))=1; tresholds(1,1)=T; tresholds(2,1)=p;
figure(1);colormap('gray'); imagesc(imface); %Text %Assumption of black pixel percentage p=20;%percentage of Black pixels [rmax cmax]=size(imtext); pxn=rmax*cmax; %number of pixels T=0; while max(size(find(imtext==0))) < p*pxn/100 T=T+1; imtext(find(imtext==T))=0; end imtext(find(imtext>T))=1; tresholds(1,2)=T; tresholds(2,2)=p; figure(2);colormap('gray'); imagesc(imtext); %Sky %Assumption of black pixel percentage p=50;%percentage of Black pixels [rmax cmax]=size(imsky); pxn=rmax*cmax; %number of pixels T=0; while max(size(find(imsky==0))) < p*pxn/100 T=T+1; imsky(find(imsky==T))=0; end imsky(find(imsky>T))=1; tresholds(1,3)=T; tresholds(2,3)=p; figure(3);colormap('gray'); imagesc(imsky); thresholds

Gray Level Histogram Gray Level Histogram method is based on minimizing the ratio of between classes variance to total variance of gray level pixels. Total gray level variance is the variance of two separate Gaussian functions, representing the background and object pixels. In case there are two pixel groups with Gaussian distribution, it is not a great deal to calculate the overall variance of the whole image, denoted by t2. Moreover, it is possible to calculate the variance of the object and the background pixels separately, for any predefined threshold. This is denoted by w2 and called within class variance. This term, within class variance is a measure of standard deviation of background and object pixels. As a matter of fact, if it is possible to perfectly separate object and background pixels than we will have two separate Gaussian functions with two exact within class variance. Even though it is an important measure in ANOVA (Analysis of Variance), we are not going to deal with this term in Gray Level Histogram Method. Variations of the mean values for each class from the mean of whole image are named as between classes variance. This is a value that we want to minimize. The name implies that it is the between classes variance. We would like to have no relation between two classes to be able to make a perfect distinction. Therefore, we are going to pick up the best threshold value, which minimizes the ratio of b2/t2 where b2 represents between classes variance. Overall variance t2 is going to be calculated from the image, using histogram values. On the other hand, it is not that easy to calculate between classes variance. An expression to calculate b2 is;

b2 = 0 i ( 0 i ) 2

In this formula 0 and i represents the mean values of overall and pixels up to gray level i. Other terms, w0 and wi are calculated using the expression below:

0 = pi i = 1 0

t t i i = T t = i pi 0 i =0
Where pi is the probability of gray level i and t is the mean of the whole image. Given these expressions one can calculate each b2/ t2 ratio for any t. Value t that gives the minimum result for that ratio is to be selected as the optimal threshold.

Sources:

1. Advanced Methods in Grey Level Segmentation. 2. Gray Levels and Histogram , December 2004, Ruye Wang http://fourier.eng.hmc.edu/e161/lectures/digital_image/node9.html 3. Analysis of Variance between groups, December 2004, http://www.physics.csbsju.edu/stats/anova.html